Assessment And Classroom Based Assessment English Language Essay

Assessment And instillroom Based Assessment side of meat manner of speaking EssayThe aim of this chapter is to look at relevant look into studies in sex act to estimation in the schoolroom place setting, and to explore the role of schoolroom legal opinion in more details, with a specific focus on moldable wording sound judgement. It appears that the teachers schoolroom legal opinion practices and strategies whitethorn directly fix get worders accomplishment, and this includes early engageers.(Oksananot still with preadolescent learners..so what should I put here) Classroom teachers argon in the front line of helpering learners acquire and assessing their mathematical c atomic deem 18 for in the schoolroom. Thus, the lit examine is mainly concerned with the role of classroom estimation and the race amidst classroom judicial decision practices and discipline. The following constituent clarifies near marchesinology and explores the links in the midst of judgment and teaching with progeny speech communication learners in the EFL context d one and only(a) a critical review of literature on experiences of sagaciousness with primary-age learners.2.2 Definitions of judicial decision and classroom-based appraisalIn this department, the definition of the depot discernment is exitd and the definition of classroom-based estimate (CBA) is discussed to succeed more details of the relationship amidst legal opinion and learning in classrooms. In the educational context, the boundary assessment is often associated with test for most of the teachers, learners and other(a) stakeholders. However, testing is only one element of assessment and it actu all(a)(prenominal)y encompasses a wider range of factors from tests to driving and collaborative activities and tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the difference between assessment and testing before looking at the definition of classroom-based assessment(Oksana i nsert page listwhat?).2.2.1 The distinction between assessment and testingIoannou-Georgior and Sophie (2003 4) provide a broader meter reading of assessment they describe assessment as a ecumenic condition which includes all methods utilise to gather information ab come forward(predicate) childrens knowledge, energy, brain, attitudes and motivation. Assessment ass be carried out finished a number of instruments (for example, test, self-assessment), and move be stately or informal. This definition counsels that teachers may usance some(prenominal)(prenominal) formal and informal methods to collect information in relation to learners effect, much(prenominal) as their ability and attitudes, as an evidence of learning. Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (ibid) blossom out that assessment refers to all kinds of methods, whether they are formal or informal, with the aim of collecting evidences of learners learning.(Oksana similar to above, innuendo remove it)The studies of Rea-Dickins(2000), Lambert and Lines (2000) go further to suggest that assessment is a constant on-going process rather than a onetime thing. Rea-Dickins (2000) illustrates assessment as the general process of monitoring of keeping plow of the learners progress. (p. 376). She highlights that much(prenominal) process is a continuous method to monitor the learners military operation. Lambert and Lines (2000) as come up show the similar view of point, they define assessment as the process of gathering, go steadying, put d ingesting and employ information about educatees responses to educational tasks (p. 4) From their viewpoint, assessment is cerebrate to what teachers do during the process of doctrine and learning, including gathering, diagnosing, entering and victimisation information about educatees act and feedback. As can be seen, assessment is a calve of both teachers and learners life at heart classroom and is integrated to the process of teach and learning. It is similarly apply to monitor and respond to learners regular work, such(prenominal) as learning activities, tasks and tests.On the other hand, testing refers to a surgery that is apply to measure learners ability by teachers and examiners (Rea-Dickins, 2000). According to Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (2003), testing is a procedure with a certain objective and is used by teachers to assess learners performance in social club to understand whether the learner has fulfilld this objective or not. They as well as point out that testing used tasks or exercises and assigns marks or physiques based on quantitative moments (p. 4) This seems to suggest that testing is one of the tools that used by teachers to assess their learners ability and is a way to demonstrate what learners throw learnt. It also implies that testing is a onetime thing rather than an ongoing process. As can be seen, testing is a procedure with a certain objective and is used to collect quantitative results, in footing of marks or grades. It is used to measure what the learners move everyplace learnt and to check whether they constitute met their goal or not meanwhile, assessment refers to all methods of collecting both quantitative and qualitative data in relation to learners performance and is a continuous process. (Oksana Yes, but it is classroom based assessment specifically that does this..what?)In fact, through clarifying the boundaries between testing and assessment may help us to get insight into the meaning and definition of classroom-based assessment.2.2.2 Definition of Classroom-Based AssessmentClassroom-based assessment is defined by Airasian as the process of collecting, synthesizing and interpreting information to caution in classroom decision making (2005, p. 2). He highlights the work that teachers contain to take during the process of assessment in the classroom context, with the aim of bread and butter teachers in decision making, such as deciding what forms of assessment are most appropriate for straighten outing information about learners learning and measuring con brotherhoodmation. In classrooms, teachers collect data in relation to learners needs, strength, and weakness and try to interpret the information on the basis of teachers own beliefs, capacities and knowledge. They then provide help to learners and may be commensurate to support individual learning needs. much(prenominal) ongoing processes, including assigning grades, providing feedback and learning opportunities, and modifying the precept and learning, are aiming to renew, keep track and record learners performance in the classroom. By doing so, teachers may be able to get up learners learning and help them to close the gap between their watercourse status and their target level (Sadler 1989).Further, Mckay describes that classroom assessment or teacher assessment refers to assessment carried out by teachers in the classroom (2006, p. 140). He then notes that classroom assessment may be p uttermost(a)ic, for instance, when the get is to provide feedback to help learners improve learning, or it may be summative, when the enjoyment is to record and tale pupils act and attainment (Rea-Dickins 2000). As can be seen, the purposes for classroom assessment may lead to using assessment information plasticly or summatively by teachers. For example, they may need to use plastic assessment to mention learner needs and use summative assessment to provide learners work to school authorities in the end of a school year. In fact, there are a configuration of purposes for teachers to use classroom assessment. Rea-Dickins suggests ternary objectives of using classroom assessment teaching, nurturing learning, and measuring learning (2000). In other words, teachers may use classroom assessment to modify their teaching methods and materials, provide appropriate help to learners and meet the bureaucratic demands.Classroom assessment plays a significant ro le in collecting information about learners learning and can also be used to support teachers teaching and learning (Rea-Dickins, 2001). It is a continuous and integrated process which can be plan in advance as well as be unplanned, such as notice learners language performance during the course of teaching and assessment activities. The roles of teachers may have an blow on learners learning in the classroom, whether as facilitators to break learners language widenment or as assessors to measure learners language learning, (Rea-Dickins, 2008). Teachers may use both shaping and summative assessment as pedagogic tools to scaffold learners, adjust their teaching, and assign grades for learners in the classroom. It is historic for teachers to develop classroom assessment skills and strategies, and bring about positive change in classrooms. The aims of adopting classroom assessment strategies are to support learners learning and teachers teaching, and to meet the last achievement of the computer program goals.Rea-Dickins (2001) provides a model of classroom assessment which illustrates teachers roles in four point in times in the classroom assessment process (see Figure 2.1). It also cracks the fact that teachers may need to play a mediating role in order to deal with various demands from improving learning and modifying teaching. For instance, in stage 1, the Planning stage, teachers may be interpreters to explain the learning goals and assessment criteria with learners and evaluators to differentiate learners needs and levels. They may change by reversal supporter in stage 2 in order to scaffold learners and provide feedback to them. As for stage 3, teachers may also need to be interpreters to interpret the learning evidence and improvers to polish up the assessment process meanwhile, they may need to be historys to report and record the learning progress to administrative authorities.Stage 1 PlanningIdentifying the purpose for the assessment?(why? )Choosing the assessment activity(how)Preparing the learners for the assessmentWho chooses/decides for each of the aboveStage 4 Recording DisseminationRecording reporting progress toward NCFormal review for LEA or internal school purposesStrategies for dissemination of formal review of learnersStage 2 ImplementationIntroducing the assessment(why, what, how)Scaffolding, during assessment activityLearner self- look monitoringFeedback to learners(immediate)Stage 3 MonitoringRecording evidence of achievementInterpreting evidence obtained from an assessmentRevising teaching and learning plansshare-out findings with other teachersFeedback to learners (delayed)Figure 2.1 Process and strategies in classroom assessment1However, teachers may not be able to predict the complex interaction between these two assessment purposes before actually implementing the assessment active. For instance, teacher-planned summative assessment may also provide shaping assessment opportunities for students d uring the teaching process. Rea-Dickins (2006) points out that the boundary and interaction between fictile and summative purposes of assessment cannot be identified in any watertight way in advance, as they leave behind unfold and be enacted through the classroom discourse (p. 183). As can be seen, teachers need to be flexible with their classroom assessment practices and be able to use both formative and summative assessment as pedagogic tools to scaffold learners, adjust their teaching, and assign grades for learners in the classroom. Thus, it is important for teachers to understand the functions of both formative and summative assessments and how to use them to modify their teaching, compound pupil achievement, and report to school authorities, parents and other stakeholders.2.3 The Functions of Classroom Assessment fictile and Summative AssessmentOn the basis of the definition of classroom assessment (2.2), classroom assessment may be used as a variety of instruments by teac hers to collect data in relation to learners needs, ability, knowledge, understanding and performance in the classroom. This seems to imply the primary role teachers play in classroom assessment process and the importance of linking formative and summative assessment to effectively enhance learners learning and report it to other stakeholders, including parents, other teachers, learners themselves, and school authorities. In this section, the functions of classroom assessment, in monetary value of formative and summative assessment, will be discussed, particularly with assessment for learning, through a review of the literature in relation to the role of both formative and summative assessment in classrooms.2.3.1 The Role of Formative and Summative AssessmentClassroom teachers are in the front line of assisting learners to develop their ability and enhance their learning, thus, it is pivotal for teachers to realise the different functions and characteristics between formative and summative assessments and to integrate them into unremarkable teaching and learning. Harlen and James (1997) share the different roles of formative and summative assessment in classroom assessment. They urge the need to distinguish the differences between formative and summative assessment, in terms of the functions and characteristics, and then connect and wave them together. To reveal the complexities of the differences between formative and summative, some research reports have provided a variety of interpretations to help teachers to clarify the concept of formative and summative assessment.According to the report of Task Group on Assessment and scrutiny, known as TGAT, it defines formative and summative assessment through clarifying the different purposes and timing between them. For formative assessment, teachers may use it to understand the the positive achievements of a pupil (DES/WO, 1988, para. 23) (Oksana This is quite an old reference, is there anything newer/more re cent on this point?)and then plan their teaching in order to help the pupil to reach to the next step. It highlights the dynamic process of teaching and learning in the classroom and more importantly, it points out the future direction through using the results of assessment. Formative assessment is a continuous process of adjusting teachers teaching and learners learning meanwhile, summative assessment is used for systematic recording of learners overall achievement. In other words, teachers may use summative assessment to note learners performance, such as recording the grade or scores of teacher make and standardized tests, after a certain period of time.In 2001, Clarke verbalised similar views in providing a clear illustration for formative and summative assessmentIf we think of our children as plantssummative assessment of the plants is the process of exactly measuring them. The measurements might be interesting to compare and analyse, but, in themselves, they do not affect t he growth of the plants. Formative assessment, on the other hand, is the tend equivalent of feeding and watering the plants directly affecting their growth (p2).As can be seen, the main function of formative assessment is to provoke pupils and improve learning, which is a continuous process of interaction between teachers and learners. For instance, in classrooms, teachers provide guidance for learners toward improvement through formative assessment feedback during the processes of teaching and learning. As for summative assessment, it takes place after the teaching and learning. Teachers may grade or make judgments in relation to learners learning in order to inform and report to other stakeholders. In the classroom, teachers use formative assessment to help learners learning as well as modify their own teaching methods and materials. They also use summative assessment to assign grades and report attainment at the end of a school year for administrative purposes (Bachman Palmer 1996). As such, formative assessment requires the ability of the teacher to diagnose learners performance, in terms of what causes him or her to get struck, and to help learner to understand what to learn, how they learn, and how well they have learned.2.3.2 Formative Classroom Assessment assessment for learning more recently, the focus of the classroom assessment studies has shifted from forms of test to the interactions between assessment and classroom learning. This shift also highlights the importance of the improvement of learning through formative teacher assessment. Black and Wiliam (1998) review a variety of past research studies in relation to classroom formative assessment. They point out that several(prenominal) empirical studies show evidence to support the claim that improving formative assessment do raise standards and help pupils learning, particularly with low ability pupils. They also present evidence in relation to how teachers use formative assessment practices a nd strategies to enhance pupils learning in the field of general education.A broader explanation of formative assessment is provided by Black and Wiliam, they illustrate that all those activities undertaken by teachers, and/or by their students, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are pursue (1998, p.7). Their interpretation not only points out that formative assessment activities can be used by both teachers and learners but also indicates how teachers and students use feedback to adjust the teaching and learning. From this perspective, formative assessment is embedded in teaching and learning and can be used to prompt learner learning. learn formative assessment strategies, such as effective teacher feedback, teacher scaffolding, self- and peer- assessment, and raising learners self-esteem and motivation, may be integrated and embedded within teacher-learner(s) interactions(Rea-Dickins 2006).As can be seen , the activities that conduct by teachers, such as observation, teacher made tests, take-home tasks, and learners, including self- and peer- assessment, would provide information to help both teachers and learners improve themselves. Further, Brindley (2001) points out formative assessment should undertake by teachers during the learning process, by doing so, teachers can use the results to improve affirmation (p. 137).In addition, Sadler (1989) connects formative assessment with feedback and believes that feedback to teachers and to learners are separate. He suggests that the aim of using feedback for teachers is to diagnose learners performance and modify their teaching in order to help learners to enhance their abilities meanwhile, for learners, the purpose of using feedback is to monitor their performance and understand their own learning weaknesses and strengths.Further, Tunstall and Gipps (1996, p.393) divulge two types of feedback used by teachers in classrooms evaluative a nd descriptive feedback respectively. They suggest that the former seems to be more close to affective and conative (effort-based) aspects of learning with a performance goal, whereas the latter places the emphasis on the cognitive development with a mastery goal. Teachers act as facilitators in providing descriptive types of feedback, such as making suggestions and questioning as part of discussion, rather than directing (p. 401). As can be seen, there is a greater links between descriptive feedback and formative assessment.However, Torrance and Pryor (1998) point out that teacher feedback may have a negative influence on learners, for instance, when the teacher tries to correct learners mistakes which may lead to the impression of learners producing wrong answers. It may even be seen as criticism by the pupils and discourage learners self-esteem. Further, teacher feedback with praise may result in encouraging competition among learners instead of increasing learners motivation. Th us, it is important for teachers to recognize the influences and impact of formative assessment feedback on learner motivation and self-esteem.To sum up, classroom assessment is used by teachers to collect data in relation to the process and attainment of learners with aim of responding to individual needs and curricular demands. Formative assessment is crucial in enhancing learner learning and destruction the gap between learners actual level and potential level. The following section explored assessment of vernal language learners in a inappropriate classroom context through review of past research studies in relation to classroom assessment in practice.2.4Research on Assessment of boyish Learners in the EFL ClassroomsIn this section, the relevant research studies of classroom assessment of young language learners are explored, followed by introducing a unique mainland Chinaese educational context, in terms of learning face in private ESL schools, as the classroom assessment context in this research.2.4.1 Classroom Assessment of Young quarrel LearnersRea-Dickins (2000) points out that since the 1990s research studies in relation to assessment for foreign language learners has been more in evidence (e.g., Low et al., 1993 McKay et al., 1994 Edelenbos and Johnstone,1996 Breen et al., 1997 Leung and Teasdale, 1997). Language Testing proposes a special publishing that is focusing on assessment for young language learners, who ages 5 to about 12, in the school system. The key thought process of these reports in this issue is related to a variety of purposes for assessment for young language learners within an early years language learning curriculum which results in raising the awareness of wider issues in relation to assessment of young language learners, such as how the rigor of classroom-based assessment is achieved.Teadeale and Leung (2000) draw the anxiety to the validity of implement alternative assessment and monitoring learners learning performa nce through teacher assessment. Rea-Dickins and Gardner (2000) also look at the same issue in relation to the implementation of formative classroom assessment, in terms of keeping track of learners language development, in the incline as a Second Language (ESL) context. Their findings suggest the potential variables which may influence the validity of teacher assessment during the assessment procedure. This is followed by Gattullo who explores the way to implement formative assessment in the Italian primary foreign language classroom, where position is taught since grade 3 (age 8). She investigates different formative assessment processes through analyzing classroom assessment discourses and she also observes the everyday interactions between teachers and learners. The results suggest that instead of using formative assessment actions which may be more beneficial for learning, including observing process, examining product and metacognitive questioning teachers use more common act ions, such as questioning, correcting and judging.Continuing the theme of formative assessment of primary learners in the EFL context, Zangl (2000) provides the methods of assessment to gain information in relation to primary-age learners language skills. She argues that teachers may be able to draw a developmental picture for individual learners, including their general interactional skills and specific language skills, through ongoing assessment passim primary school. Hasselgren (2000) looks at the innovative ways to develop materials, such as tests, teacher assessment, and learners self-assessment, which can improve both teachers and learners assessment skills in Norwegian primary schools. In the context of Norway, one significant difference is that there is no tradition of testing for young language learners due to topical anesthetic policy. This contributes to high-demand assessment methods, particularly in materials development and task design, and to the implementation of f ormative assessment, in terms of assessment for learning. Both teachers and learners are encouraged to develop their ability to assess. As can be seen, the national policy is one of important variables that influences teachers attitude towards integrating classroom-based assessment into their everyday language teaching.It is also crucial to take variables, such as learners prior cultural knowledge, teachers knowledge and ability in assessment, and the English curriculum, into account when assessing primary-age learners of English as a foreign language. Teachers should choose and design the appropriate assessment material for Young language learners. The material should be well adapted to learners cognitive and linguistic skills and to their interests.The work of Hasselgren suggests that classroom assessment may be influenced by a variety of factors, particularly by the national policy. These external elements, such as the government policy and English curriculum, may have direct imp act on the implementation of assessment, teachers attitude towards classroom assessment and their classroom assessment practices in the EFL context. A brief history of primary school English education in Taiwan is explored in the next section to gain insight into a special English classroom in Taiwan.2.4.2 ESL course of instruction in TaiwanEnglish teaching and learning for young learners has become increasingly important in Asiatic countries, such as Taiwan, China, japan and Korea, where learners study English as a Foreign Language (EFL) over the past few decades. At this point it is useful to clarify some terminology before introducing the English educational context in Taiwan. The term English as a Second Language (ESL) used in countries, , such as Canada, North America and Australia, which refers to learners who are using English as the medium of instruction in school contexts but who are not English first language (L1) speakers (Rea-Dickins, 2000, p. 115). On the other hand, the term English as Foreign Language (EFL) refers to when English is taught to non-native English speakers in non- English speaking areas, such as Europe, Asia, and Africa.In 1997, the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan decided to implement curricular and instructional reforms in elemental and junior high school education. One of the most significant changes is that English courses are officially introduced in grade 3 (age 9) with two 40-minute lessons per hebdomad (Ministry of Education, Republic of China, 2010). Since then, learning English has become a popular driveway for young learners from the ages of 5 to 12 across the country. Butler (2004) points out that some Asian countries, such as Korea, Taiwan, and Japan, have introduced English language instruction at the simple-minded school level, with special focus on spontaneous communication skills. Although the officially suggested starting age is 9, most parents want their children to learn English as soon as possible. T he assumption of the younger the separate in foreign language acquisition is supported by galore(postnominal) Taiwanese parents, who believe an early start will help their children to achieve greater proficiency. These factors above contribute to the significant growth in the number of cram schools and private language schools across the country over the last decade.Cram school also known as abuxiban in Taiwan are very common and popular in competitive Asian countries, particularly in Taiwan and Japan. The aim of these schools is to help pupils to enhance their achievement scores (Harnisch, 1994 Oneil Fukumura, 1992 Stevenson Stigler, 1992). In 1999, a report from China Central News, on 6 April 1999, stated that at least more than one fanny of elementary pupils attend private language institutions after school to learn English. Tsai and Kuo (2008) report that there are more than 5,000 cram schools in Taiwan. just about English cram schools offer additional after-school teachi ng to enhance pupils English ability. In particular, numerous so-called ESL schools aim to help Taiwanese learners to learn English as a Second Language (ESL) through using American elementary textbooks and teaching all subjects, including handwriting, computer, music, social science, reading, math, science, grammar, phonics and writing, in English. They also offer an ESL program to kindergarten children of 3 years old up to students in grade 6 (age 12). In general, kindergarten pupils and grade 1 to 2 learners receive an average of 4 to 5 lessons a day, each 30 minutes long. As for grade 3 to 6 learners, they receive nearly 2 to 3 lessons a day due to their longer elementary school hours. Such ESL schools provide a unique educational context to investigate these ESL English teachers perceptions of classroom assessment and their own classroom assessment practices.

Impact of the Digital Age

Impact of the Digital AgeINTRODUCTIONThe digital get along with refers to present date use of machines and computers to present schooling. The digital age had an all(prenominal)whereall impact on our societies and day to day activities. It has a draw poker of advantages and disadvantages i.e. it came with so many opportunities as well as costs.We be alimentation in the age in which professionals in digital technologies are laborious to push their boundaries on becoming more advanced in engine room still beyond our imagination. Digital institution has bring forthn a new-fashioned explanation to engineering which is now used as a room of expression, interactions, entertainments, larn etc.Most of us knew that t present will be a stage in lifespan where digital devices will be the nigh important get of human beings. Lets let ourselves as an example here we use smart phones, ipads, laptops etc. Devices that we escape with us whenever we go to the toilet, but the most important question here is screw we survive with protrude these devices in our possession or pockets? The answer will most definitely be no for most of us depend so much on these devices in our daily life or activities.As we know that we are living in the digital world and these devices submit changed completely the way human beings shake lived before, due to the simplicity of using digital devices from texting, sending/receiving pictures/music/, making video calls and other hundreds of functions that digital devices have. These devices have even do us to be able to effect ternary tasks as soon as we hold them in our hands, we skill read a message, listen to music, talking to someone, checking Facebook accounts etc. But how do we divide our attention from these tasks? We as humans may not make out multitasking accurately desire how computers do, as we lack the ability to monitor multiple tasks at the same time but yet we can give individual attention to each task.The es sential thing to humans on these digital devices is their reminiscence, which has extended extremely fast and efficiently. We use this retentiveness part of the digital devices from storing very critical secrets, important business documents, pictures etc. non only due to its faithfulness but also the ability to maintaining the stored tuition for a very long time as long as we keep them in our machines and nobody can access them without our permission. Professionals in memory engineering have managed to make our lives easier by creating and improving the digital memory that we use. Instead of saving breeding in our heads/papers we just that them in our digital devices and carry the saved information with us wherever we go to and we do not even worry about them once they are stored.THE IMPACT OF DIGITAL AGE ON THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL way OF SOCIETIES TODAY.SOCIALLYDigital age has impacted the kind-heartedly life of societies hugely. In the past, most of our so cial interactions were private and undocumented. That is increasingly not the case with the climax of digital age. When we interact with each other by means of the internet, we leave digital records behind. Companies like Facebook and Twitter have huge databases to the full of all kinds of information about our social behaviours. Lets think of the days where on that point were no online messengers, no emails, and no cell phones. Indeed cellular engineering science made it possible for us to communicate over wireless media. web communication facilities have worked wonders in speeding long-distance communication. Today we can reach and keep in touch with our family and friendseven our enemies, with the help of social networks like bbm, facebook, twitter, skype etc.On the other hand, they have deprived mankind of the warmth of personal contact. Emails replaced handwritten letters and communication lost its personal touch. With the means of communication so easily accessible, that magic in waiting to reach someone and the upthrust that followed has vanished. Also, the internet has bred many unethical practises, like hacking, spamming etc. Internet umbrage is on the rise. The internet being an open platform lacks regulation. There is no regulation on the content displayed on websites. Internet gambling has get down an addiction for so many, access to pornographic sights and inappropriate information is made accessible to children. Overexposure to the internet has recognizen its toll. Children are spending all their time playing online and less or almost no time on the ground. Youngsters are spending most of their time social networking, missing on the joys of real social life.ECONOMICALLYEconomically, the digital age has also helped a whole lot. Industrial revolution is one of the impacts of digital age in the economic life of societies today because the use of new technologies and inventions of machines helps towards increasing doing of goods and servic es and also delivering those goods to the appropriate place when needed. Also, without the world wide web(www) for example, globalization and outsourcing would not be nearly as feasible as they are today. The digital revolution radically changed the way individuals and companies interact. Small regional companies were all at once given access to much larger markets. Concepts such as on-demand services, manufacturing and speedily dropping technology costs, made possible innovations in all aspects of manufacturing and everyday life.POLITICALLYGoing deep into the impact of digital age on the political life of the society, some other considerable impact to look on is during the election period today, people do come out of their houses to vote for the beloved candidate, individuals were given the right to vote for whom they wish to be their leader and at any period. A well educated individual with the necessary requirement that will qualify him to stand as a candidate during an elect ion can do so.Today, you can now put out an article, letter or even through computers that are all over which will enable you to go online, search for one of your leaders and have a mutual conversation with him/her about the political problems that rises all the time, the bed of corruption among the leaders, misuse of public funds etc and the best way to cheat all these problems. People could get things that were previously not on hand(predicate) to joint people, and the standard of living could go up.ConclusionWe integrate through digital age, nature and quality of interactions. We have with everything around us given full control to utilize the digital world as human begins. We cover a lot of information with one another via digital world (pictures, own and family histories, feelings etc) and yet we have managed to accept the uniqueness of one another in the digital world. We even share invitations for private parties, birthdays and other events through facebook instead of c alling friends or sending invitation cards, and people whom we invite serve to those invitations saying if they can come to the invited event or not and even sending their best wishes.Well maybe we should ask ourselves are we ripe in this digital surrounding (social media etc), do we have enough fellowship about the dangers of digital age? What about our own privacy and the information we share? We might be aware that sharing information via social media might even ruin someones carrier, relationship or even our social status. Being aware of the dangers of the digital world and learning about our own privacy will make us take control of the information we share about ourselves since technology has been and will perpetually play a key role in our society.The impact of technology on our society is deep. It is both positive and negative. Technology has largely influenced every aspect of living. It has made life easy, but so easy that it may lose its charm on day. One can cherish an accomplishment only if it comes after effort. But everything has become so easily available due to technology that it has lost its value. There is a certain kind of enjoyment in achieving things after striving for them. But with everything a hardly a(prenominal) clicks away, there is no striving, theres only striking. With the developments in technology, we may be able to enjoy all the pricey luxuries in life but at the cost of losing its priceless joys.

Sociology Essays Researcher Power Relations

Sociology Es puts Researcher violence RelationsHow do foundation-beater relations challenge us to re-think the expel of dialogue in enquiry, ethicsand captious urban ethnography?Sociological explore is non theclearly defined thot on that the textbooks would birth us believe. It can be amessy business and is fraught with pitfalls so the look into creamer needs to beflexible in his/her approaching to the project. Power relationships emerge as anissue right from the beginning. There atomic count 18 the former relations contained inwardly sociable institutions and in in the flesh(predicate) relationships. The relationship between the look intoer and the looked is generally thought of as one of unequal sortrelations where the enquiry worker is the shop steward of expertise concerning themeaning of a look subjects experiences.The balance of strength whitethorn non,however, be in the enquiry workers hands at the beginning of a project, if the look forer needs to elaboration nark to a setting then he/she may be subject to thewhims of gatekeepers. Gatekeepers grant the fountain to separate no the enquiryersrequest and if you do suffice to gain en feat it is very much at the end of a longslow surgery. Lofland and Lofland (1984) say that feelings of anxiety when atomic number 18searcher first encounters gate keepers, is non unusual beca riding habit they hold thereins of power. Bogdan and Taylor (1984) spargon ab forbidden problems with gatekeepers.They conclude that there ar those professionals in charge of establishments such(prenominal)as loneliness homes or womens refuges, who exercise their power by monitoringwho should and should non visit. In this elbow room they retain hold in of the spaceoccupied by the pile they cargon for and in arbitrary their space excessivelycontrol the invites of and within that space.Giddens 2001 has argued that thechanges in modern society pick up, in their turn, brought grand cha nges to the meanswe live our livesThe development ofmodern cities has had an enormous imp comprise, non scarce on habits and modes ofbehaviour, just now on patterns of thought and feeling. From the time whenlarge urban agglomerations first formed, in the 18th century, views ab step to the forethe effects of cities on affectionate life accept hold been polarized (Giddens,2001573).Hammersley (2000) has argued that social explore can non be understood outside of the social world that itstudies. It does non populate in around autonomous realm, but guesss, and isaffected by former(a)(a) factors in society. Beginning with a brief explanation of key scathe this melodic theme testament ground a brief description of the long and hotly contesteddebate that frames the quantitative/qualitative divide within look intodiscourse. This should demonstrate that even ahead a researcher frames argonsearch question they have to contend with the powerful discourse that says social rese arch should be undertaken in a scientific manner if it is to fetchmeaningful data. The musical composition impart examine the question of how power relationschallenge us to re-think the issue of dialogue in research, ethics and preciseurban ethnography. The patriarchal(prenominal) focus with regard to how acquaintance is acquired, andhow, like research, it is good connected with relations of power, volition beon feminist work. The final part of the paper will deal with power relations,dialogue and ethics in the context of searing urban ethnography.EpistemologyAn epistemological concern is onethat raises the question of what baron be regarded as acceptable knowledge in adiscipline. Central to this summit is whether it is feasible to check the socialworld in the same counsel and using the same principles as science (Bryman, 2004).Research undertaken in this way is generally associated with a positivistparadigm of research.PositivismPositivism is close to(prenominal) closelyassociated with the work of Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim. Positivism is anepistemological standpoint that argues for the application of the scientific regularity to the social world. It is usually (though non always) associated withquantitative research and the collection of statistics. Positivism is,therefore, very closely associated with the scientific manner which, looselyput, is based around the laws of cause and effect. Bryman (2004) identifies theaspects of positivism in the following ways, only those things that we canobserve by our senses can really be known. Theory (speculations about what mogul be the contingency) is used to generate hypotheses (general line of reasonings) that canbe tested and from which laws can be derived. The hypothesis is subjected toquestions e.g. who, what, when, where and data gathered either throughinterviews, observation, or using hold outing data such as crime statistics. Ifthe honourings confirm the hypothesis then laws ar d erived, if not then the hypothesishas to be circumscribed. This run continues until a suitable conclusion isreached that confirms the modified hypothesis. Positivists state that sciencemoldiness be object lens and protect free (Bryman, A. 2004).Durkheim argued that in night club to be scientific and to go objectiveknowledge, social facts should be counted as things, and that allpreconceptions must be eradicated (Durkheim, E, 193831).Scientific statements should be the interest of the scientist because they arethe only statements that can be affirm by the senses i.e. science proceedsthrough observable, repeatable experiments.. It is this form of research in particularthat feminists have dubbed malestream research (Abbott and Wallace,1997) they argue thatM any(prenominal) malestream sociologistsare resistant to the view that there is a need for a reconceptualisation.Nevertheless, this is the position that w accept and while we trueize thatthis is an uphill struggle we think t hat it is a necessary one if we are toachieve an adequate sociology (Abbott and Wallace, 199713).InterpretivismThis is the opposite view topositivism where a research strategy is essential that respects the fact thatthere is a difference between the physical world and people. The scientificmethods that are used to study the physical world may not be appropriate tostudying the social world where the sociologist is trying to understand the meaningsthat people accord to their actions. Interpretivists most oftentimes use qualitativeresearch methods consisting of unstructured interviews and participantobservation. Positivists criticise research data gained in this way asunscientific and subjective. They argue that the findings from such research donot have the same validity or reliability as data peaceful in a scientificmanner (Bryman, 2004). Researchers who use qualitative methods tend to murdertheir research touch as transparent as possible and will often affect theirresearch su bjects to check the findings to see whether they are an accuraterepresentation of the persons life.Both types of researchers want toknow what is happening in society but interpretivists also attempt tounderstand. Weber (1947) maintained that sociology is aScience which attempts theinterpretive understanding of social action in order to fare at a causalexplanation of its cause and effects (Weber, 194788).Qualitative researchers tend tomake use of unstructured interviews, case study research and participantobservation. Ethnographic methods such as in-depth interviews and prolongedparticipant observation are also favoured methods. These last tend to be usedto a greater extent often by those who are engaged in critical research. Hammersley (1992)criticises the use of ethnographical methods because he believes that this typeof research is less able to produce data that will result in useful theoreticalinsights. Participant observation is regarded by positivists as unscientificand not r igorous enough they regard it as subjective. Hammersley (1992) hasargued that because ethnographers can produce different accounts of the samesetting then the results of such research might be state to reflect a purelypersonal perspective rather than a scientific and true account.Yet anothercriticism of this type of method is that the ensuing account is the result ofhighly selective methods of data collection (Hammersley, 1992). This isarguably a nonsensical criticism as all research is the result of a set ofselection sufficees. The researcher constantly has to decide what is the lift outway of collecting the information that will answer the research question. Thishappens in what is regarded as scientific and value free social research justas much as it does in social research that does not claim to be objective andvalue free. completely researchers, as Gouldner (1971) points out have to make choicesabout their domain of enquiry i.e. when, where, how, and from whom they aregoing to obtain their data.There is a clear difference betweenscience and the scientific method and the methods that are needed toinvestigate the social world. For human worlds, human action is meaningful andthey act on the basis of that meaning. The sociologists job is to interpretthe social world from the research subjects point of view. What this means isthat far from research being objective and knowledge being objective and valuefree, they are in fact marked by the shape of their producers. Marx acceptedthis in his analysis of capitalism and feminists have recognised this in theiranalysis of patriarchate and of an epistemological stance that bears the stampand is endowed with the power of the white western male. therefrom power relationsare evident even before we begin on the actual research edge. familiarity and PowerThe rationalistattitudes towards knowledge that developed during the Enlightenment remained overabundant until substantially into the nineteenth century. They we re, as many feministshave argued (Abbott and Wallace, 1997), a powerful force in determining whatconstituted knowledge and have had considerable effect on the structures ofmodern society. A similar critique of knowledge has also been mounted by theFrench philosopher Michel Foucault (1966).The work ofthinkers such as Nietzsche (1886) and Foucault (1966) has emphasised the factthat knowledge is intimately tied to structures of power and domination.Foucault argues that it is power which produces and sustains knowledge.Anything that contradicts the authorised view of what counts as knowledge isseen as pervert and transgressional. frankincense, he argues,Power isthat which says no. Any confrontation with power therefrom conceived appears only astransgression (1966 53).Feministcriticisms of knowledge and the way that knowledge is produced are aconfrontation with power and authority. The pr uncoveredsity of many thinkers toneglect class, race, gender, and economic factors contributes to the exclusionof oppressed and marginal viewpoints thus further reinforcing bothuniversalistic and objective models of knowledge and the power structures associatedwith this view. Foucault has argued that the enlightenment model of scientificreason only existed through the will to objectify and dominate. For Foucault,this considerate of knowledge is inseparable from the desire for power. He argues thatresearch into ungodliness or mental illness is often undertaken for the expresspurposes of legislation, and not for a desire for improvement in these areas(1966). These critiques of the structures of power have meant thatepistemological questions are now a central issue within contemporary culture(Lennon and Whitford, 1994). The writings of Marx (1970), Foucault (1966), andmembers of the Frankfurt schooltime (and in a different context liberationtheologians) emphasise the fact knowledge claims are a reflection of theinterests of those with economic power. to a greater extent recent ly, black scholars andscholars from the trio world have also indicated the Eurocentric and racistnature of most knowledge mathematical product (Lennon and Whitford, 1994). The separationof fact from value in knowledge production is not appropriate, that is to sayknowledge is not objective and neutral. Rather, knowledge bears the stamp ofits producers and is affected by their value systems. It is through thisunderstanding that feminist and other forms of critical research developed. slender ResearchCarspecken(1996) maintains that critical research is aimed at exposing the powerrelationships at work in society peculiarly as they relate to social inequalities. The researcher studies this from the viewpoint of the oppressedin the hope of achieving social change. hypercritical research is informed by thecritical theory of the Frankfurt School. Critical social research does not fitwell into either the positivist camp or the interpretive one but embraces allthose approaches which tend to criticise society (in legal injury of its powerrelationships for example) in order to transform it. Hammersley (1995) hasargued that the growing curve of qualitative research and most particularlyof the type of research that is critical of power structures and of theinequalities that exist within society has meant that increasingly the basisfor seeing social research as scientific has been undermined. Harvey (1990) hassaid of critical research thatcritiqueis an integral part of the processA critical research process involves morethan appending critique to an accumulation of fact or theory gathered throughsome machinelike process, rather it denies the objective status of knowledge (Harvey,1990 quoted in Haralambos et al, 2000982).Knowledge inthese terms is a process that is neer finished because the social world isconstantly changing. Knowledge is inseparable from the values of the socialcontext in which it emerged, the research participants, and most importantly,the researche r. The knowers always affect what is known as Ely et al (1996)argueResearchlike all other knowing, is a transactional process the knower and the knownboth act upon each other (Ely, et al, 1996196 ibid.).Criticalresearch is primarily concerned with breakthrough oppression and oppressivestructures and by that action transforming them. By unwraping these structureswithin social accounts the critical researcher can then link these with widersocial processes and structures. Thus Oakleys analysis of housework and howwomen bear the brunt of it links linchpin to industrialisation and the rise ofcapitalism and womens removal from the humanity world of work to the privatesphere of the home, this also links with the growth of patriarchal oppressionof women (Harvey, 1990). Thus a critical analysis such as this can uncover thebasis of some of the power relationships that exist within society and ultimately to change them. Harvey (1990) says of this process that it..involvesa constant questi oning of the perspective and analysis the researcher isbuilding up. It is a process of gradually, and critically, coming to knowthrough constant reconceptualisation. This means that the selection of a coreconcept for analysis is not a once and for all affair (Harvey, 199030).Harvey (1990)maintains that critical research does not depend on any one method becauseresearchers may often use a variety of methods in ensuring that they have dothe connections with wider social processes such as the structures of power,and also to increase the reliability of their findings. Feminist research alsooperates by the use of a number of different research methods, feminists are moreconcerned with astir(p) womens lives and with the non-exploitation of thosewho are researched, than they are with the commitment to any one set of methods.Some (primarily male) researchers argue against feminist research because theysay that it is subjective and partisan. They argue that research should neverbe partisan and that it is out(predicate) for everyone to be equally free, theremust always be some hierarchy. Thus Geuss (1981) contends thatIt seems unrealistic underpresent conditions of human life to assume that any and every preference humanagents might have can be satisfied, or to assume that all involvement between thepreferences of different agents will be peacefully and rationally resolved.Some frustration-even some imposed frustration-of some human preferences mustbe legitimate and blameless (Guess, 198116).Presumably thelegitimate and unexceptionable preferences are the prerogative of the male, whofor centuries has had some much power over womens lives. It is this kind ofpower that feminists are keen to expose, they are also concerned about thepower relationships which exist between the researcher and the researched, andwhich have sometimes been exploited by (male) researchers. In view of this somefeminists argue that participatory research, where the researcher and theresearched work together on a project, should be a defining feature of feministresearch. Abbott and Wallace (1997) argue however, that this is not often donebecause,it is notpossible for the researcher to share her knowledge and expertise, and to implythat she is sharing them conceals a power relationship rather than overcomingit (Abbott and Wallace, 1997288).Feminists who douse these methods argue that participatory research not only gives women a moreactive role in knowledge production but further increases the validity of theresearch findings. McGuire (1987), has this to sayParticipatoryresearch proposes returning to ordinary people the power to participate inknowledge creation, the power that results from such creation, and the power toutilize knowledge (Maguire, 198739).Even this statement isproblematic because the researcher has at least some training in how researchmight be said to proceed and this is not easily passed on to those who are nottrained (Abbott and Wallace, 1997). Mies, 198 3 has this to saythe study of an oppressive veracity is not carried out by experts but by the objects of the oppression.People who were before objects of research be enumerate subjects of their ownresearch and action. This implies that scientists who participate in this studyof the conditions of oppression must give their research tools to the people (Mies,198316).Shared experiences, it might beargued, help to balance out the power relationships that feminists such asAbbott and Wallace (1997) contend, inevitably exist between a researcher andthose who are researched. One way in which the researcher may try to lessen thepower differential is through self-disclo confident(predicate). Thus recovering alcoholics whoare researching alcohol persecute or women who have survived domestic violenceinterviewing women who are being abused would make the interviewee awake(predicate) of thefact. While it maybe impossible to do away with the power differentialaltogether, it does make it less pro blematic. Ann Oakley (1982) has writtenthat,the goal of finding outabout people through interviewing is best achieved when the relationship ofinterviewer and interviewee is non- hierarchical and when the interviewer isprepared to invest his or her own personal identity operator in the relationship (Oakley,198241).This power differential thatexists in the research relationship may also colour what is found because datais never free of the influence of the person who gathered it. Carspecken (1996)believes that although critical researchers may have a value commitment that isnot to say that the research needs to be biased providing it is taxonomic andcareful. Stanley and Wise have this to say,.the recognition that whoa researcher is, in terms of their sex, race, class, and sexuality, affectswhat they find in research and is as true of feminists as of any other researchers(Stanley and Wise, 1993228).This power differential willalso affect, and may distort the dialogue between the resea rcher and theresearched. Abbott and Wallace (1997) argue that because the researcher willnecessarily involve herself with the women she is studying then she needs to beaware of this. invariant reflexivity is required if the research is to beconsidered valid. The researcher must be aware that because she is a part ofwhat is going on this inevitably affects what is going on and there needs to bea continual taking stock of how personal values, attitudes and perceptions areinfluencing the research process.A feministinterviewing women is by definition both inside the culture andparticipating in that which she is observingpersonal involvement is morethan dangerous bias it is the condition under which people come to know eachother and to admit others into their lives (Oakley,198258).Aronson (1992) has pointedout that the ethnographic interview is a common method of gathering data inqualitative research. Interviewing is also a method which is favoured byfeminist researchers (Oakley, 1982 Stanley and Wise, 1993). The interviewprocess should be such that women feel at ease and can relate their experiencesas they see them. The interviewer should set ahead the participation of theinterviewee, the aim of which is to conduct research with women rather than onwomen. In this way it is thought that a fuller picture of womens experiencesemerges (Oakley, 1981 et al). Carspecken (1996) argues that one way ofminimising any distortions that may arise due to the power differential betweenresearcher and researched is to check out your findings with the researchparticipants. Differences may also arise here if the dialogue between theresearcher and the research participants has been awkward or untruthful in anyway there may be objections when the participant sees what has been written.Seeing this distorted dialogue in print may increase any feelings ofpowerlessness that the participant might have and thus renegotiating thedialogue may prove difficult.EthicsAt the very least ethics a reconcerned with defend the anonymity of those who are participating in theresearch. This is vital if for example the participants are women who haveexperienced rape or domestic abuse as any such exposure of their true identitycould put them at further risk. galore(postnominal) researchers, not just feministresearchers, also regard the use of non-sexist language as an goodprinciple. discriminatory language is exclusionary and denotes the power relationshipsthat have for centuries existed in patriarchal society. Relationships that arein some way based on power are prone distortions in communication and it is upto the critical researcher to be aware of these sources of distortion as amatter of respectable principle. Carpecken (1996) thus believes that researchersshouldEstablish supportive,non-authoritarian relationships with the participants in your study. Activelyencourage them to question your own perceptions. Be sure that participants aresaved from any harm that your study co uld produce, and be sure that theyknow they are protected (Carpecken, 199690).There isconsiderable contemporary debate about what constitutes ethical research. Thisis particularly the case with sensitive areas and with feminist methodologies(Abbott and Wallace, 1997). Feminist researchers are concerned with the ideathat the people who are the major part of many research undertakings should notbe exploited. As I have stated previously, feminist researchers are concernedwith the researched. Relationships between researchers and their human subjectsare often go on long after work in the field has finished (Ely et al,1996). The legal age of feminists are conscious that the research relationshipis a two-way process.Researchlike all other knowing, is a transactional process the knower and the knownboth act upon each other (Ely, et al, 1996196 ibid.).Many feministsregard it as crucially important that women who are more oppressed andmarginalised than they themselves are given a joint f or their experiences. Theyargue that some, (predominantly male) researchers have used respondents asobjects to be worked on (Reinharz, 1983 Abbott and Wallace, 1997). In manycases there is no further contact with the people they have worked with oncethe research process is finished. Feminists have said that this kind of researchis conducted on a rape model.The researcherstake, hit, and run, with a total disregard for the needs of the researched.They intrude into their subjects privacy, fragment their perceptions, utilisefalse pretences, manipulate the relationships, and give little or nothing inreturn. When the needs of the researchers are satisfied, they break off contactwith the subjects (Reinharz, 198380).The issue of giving oppressed andmarginalised women a voice has been identified by black feminists, as anethical matter. This is because black womens voices are the most marginal ofall womens voices in the academy, and the current educational systemreinforces the values and cul ture of the dominant classes, thereby ensuringtheir continued domination and the covert exercise of power (Hill-Collins, P,1990). In view of these ethical questions, many feminists are conscious of theneed to put something back in, whether by the payment of a fee, or ofcontributing to work in the community. More recently however ethical questionshave also concerned researcher safety. Is it ethical to allow a lone (possiblyfemale) researcher to venture into settings where the power relationships thatpertain in such a setting may put that researcher at risk. Power and ethics areclosely entertwined. Covert participant observation (whereby the researcherdoes not betray their true role and reasons for being in the setting) isoften regarded as unethical and a misuse of researcher power becauseparticipants are not given the lay on the line to give their informed consent to the research.It is also regarded as privacy impingement (Bryman, 2004). Thus the powerrelationships that are, or mi ght be at work in the research relationship needto be acknowledged at all stages of the research process and before decisionsabout how the research is undertaken are formalised.Research, particularly qualitative research is not just composed of a setof facts drawn from a number of suitably phrased questions. It is madeup of all the seemingly unrelated bits and pieces that are part of humanrelationships (Ely et al, 1996).Critical Urban ResearchThe most famous urban research is that of the simoleons school in the 1920sand 30s. Robert Park was the central figure here and his main concerns werewith the effects of social and cultural forces on human nature. Park and hiscolleagues recognised two levels of behaviour the biotic and the cultural. Thebiotic level concerned mechanisms of survival and ambition and the culturalwas concerned with how the human subject was constituted (Dickens, 1990). Urbanresearch is concerned with how the city influences those who confront it and howit shapes their lives. Giddens has argued that the space people occupy has tobe taken into account when studying social life because social interaction isnot aspatial, it has to take place somewhere. This somewhere Giddens designatesa locale.Localesrange from a room in a house, or street corner, the shopfloor of a factory,towns and cities to the territorially demarcated areas occupied by regionstates. But they are typically internally regionalised (Giddens, 1984).The loot school was highly influential on the way in which streetsociety was studied. Jacobs (1961) undertook what became a classical study ofGreenwich Village when she studied the everyday behaviour and relationships ofpeople on the sidewalk. In the nineteen-ninetees Duneier (1999) wanted todiscover how sidewalk life had changed in the intervening years. He studied thelife of pan handlers and street vendors to see whether and in what ways itscharacter might have changed. Duneier started out as a voyeur and customer at abookstall i n Greenwich Village and it was there that he noticed the tenor ofsidewalk life. His primary informant was the bookseller who at first wasreluctant to take part in the research. When he eventually wrote up hisfindings and submitted the manuscript for publication he was not comfortableeven though he had invited his informant to read the manuscript and comment onit. He eventually co-opted the informant to co-teach with him about life on thestreet for a Black American. Duneier believed that not only would this adjustthe imbalance in power relationships in research more adequately but thatstudent feedback and comments on the course might allow him to excuse anyshortcomings of the original research.Duneier had faced a number of challenges during the course of researchsuch as gaining access to the culture and the confidence of those who lived andworked on the streets. He had trouble fitting in because of the obvious powerdifferentials of class and race as well as the dissimilarity of the researchrelationship (adapted from Giddens, 2001 pps 652-655). Duneiers researchparticipants were among the least powerful of society. The way in which modernsocieties operate what Giddens (2001) has called a geographics of centrality andmarginality where affluence and abject poverty co-exist made the lives ofDuneiers research participants unliveable. He was apprehensive whether he wasimposing an agenda on his research participants that would make their liveseven more problematic. What Duneiers research revealed was that the socialresearcher has to take account of the wider social context and processes ofwhich he/she is a themselves a part. Mac an Ghaills critical ethnography ofheterosexual and homosexual young men also tries to reduce the powerdifferential between researcher and research participants and to be as open andethically aware as possible though collaboration, reciprocity and reflexivity(Haralambos et al, 2000).ConclusionThis paper has examined how power relationships i n research impact at alllevels of the research process and affect the dialogue between the researcherand the research participants and the ethical considerations that are part ofsocial research. It has also attempted to show how these processes can severelyaffect the undertaking of critical urban ethnography. Duneiers work inparticular demonstrates how power relationships operate at all levels inresearch and how decisions that have been made (for example the changinggeography of the urban environment) which neither the researcher nor researchparticipants have any control over can affect the outcomes of the research anda researchers own sense of his personal ethical commitment to the people whomay have participated in the research. There are a number of reasons why thisis important. Those scholars who are critical of this type of research oftenfail to acknowledge that the scientific paradigm is also beset with these kindsof issues and problems but fails to take them into account. Thi s is what Popper(1992) called the theory of demarcation whereby any variables that do not fitwith the theory are ruled out of the equation. Duneier and others explicitrecounting of the problematic nature of undertaking social research thatcontributes to knowledge, is committed to social transformation, and at thesame time is aware the pitfalls that can evanesce when researching the lives ofthose who are already disenfranchised by society. There may never be a completeanswer to addressing the issue of power relationships in social research but Iwould wish to argue that the researcher who neglects the fact that such thingsexist and influence all research is failing to give an accurate account of thesocial reality that he/she is investigating.5000 wordsBibliographyAbbott, P andWallace, C (1997) An Introduction to Sociology, Feminist Perspectives Routledge,London.Aronson, J. (1992). Theinterface of family therapy and a juvenile arbitration and mediation program,.Unpublished doctoral di ssertation, Nova Southeastern University, FortLauderdale, FL .Bilton, T. etal, 1996. Introductory Sociology, London, Macmillan (Ch. 13).Bogdan, R andBilklen, S (1982) Qualitative Research for Education An Introduction toTheory and Methods, Allyn and Bacon, BostonBogdan, R andTaylor, S (1984) Introduction to Qualita

Cultures And The Globalization Of Mcdonalds Cultural Studies Essay

Cultures And The Globalization Of Mcdonalds Cultural Studies EssayIn this testify I aim to develop a better understanding of world-wideization by means of strikeing almostthing vital to sphericalizationMcDonaldization. I am focusing on a McDonald s in Bradford in the United Kingdom and the categories of peck who frequent it and why they go there. Mean period, I will contrast the McDonald s in Bradford with McDonald s in china on the basis of questionnaires, observation, communication theory and memory, indicating whether McDonald s in the two countries is similar or opposite. By highlight on customers as advantageously as stave nationalities and behaviours, menu, decoration, I would suggest that the exercise of McDonald s as a symbol of Ameri bottomland destination has been increasing through turn out the world, and it is progress to to realize that it comes under the heading of globalization. Subsequently, this study therefore gives some support to the cultural aspects of globalization including the theory active Mcdonaldization.Description of the ethnographic study in McDonald sI went shop in the city centre of Bradford on 13th December 2009. I was attracted by the obvious logo of McDonald s, the striking festive menu brief as well as free-wifi drawing in the transp atomic number 18nt windows. Subsequently, I entered the lie downaurant, as usual in china in my memory and waited in the team line as well as prep atomic number 18d to baseball club. Meanwhile, I found the menu in UK roughly the resembling in chinawargon except for a slight difference. For example, McDonald s hamburger in china will not directly put the raw cheese into hamburger.The staff with a Christmas hat and the McDonald s uniform smiled at me to help me order the menu. Surprisingly, the waiting time was relatively short, the alike as the McDonald s in mainland China. Thus, I am reminded of the four elements for the success of McDonald s business enterprise systems t hat constitute to efficiency, calculability, predictability and control.The decoration in McDonald s is warm with golden, white or mirror walls, light ivory wooden table tops, blue or racy red cushion with golden blackboard wooden chairs and upholstered armchairs in racy red colours. Contemporary art or framed photographs handing on the walls ar handlewise attractive. It is worth mentioning that in the corner, many paintings are displayed on the walls roughly the children playground area, especially those of McDonald s Characters such as Ronald McDonald Grimace, Ham forager and Birdie the Early Bird. In general, the decoration of McDonald s is aimed at making the store look to a greater consummation casual and sunny, which is similar to Starbucks. Compared with McDonald s in China, the decoration style is similar, but in the children playground area, there are more facilities standardised slides, wooden horses in China. Apparently the facilities are the same in Bradford a nd China. Behind the food serving area there are numerous technologies deal automatic French fry machines and various reliable products like happy meal which are unattached to the customers al intimately forthwith through the carefully regulated and controlled system.With respect to people, there are some(prenominal) nationalities such as British, China, Pakistan, and Africa among the customers and the staff. Most people wear leisure array and overall the colours of people s clothes are drab. It is clear that the area of age is extensive, up to eighty- year- old people, down to two- aged children. Interestingly, the most frequent combination is an adult accompanied by her or his child, who plays the flirt from happy meal as well as eats food. Meanwhile, McDonald s is the best choice for young people to enjoy the foods after obtain as the food is bargain-priced and agreeable. It is worth noting that twain in Bradford and China I found people are more likely to be treated s imilarly in McDonald s, irrespective of their race, sex, sexual orientation, or societal class. Accordingly, they swallow a high awareness to take the empty boxes and litters to the crosspatch before they leave. Specifically, the staff with a smile to every one and only(a) and provide efficient goods and work to meet the customer.A brief overview of the perspectiveA summary of my elect theory of globalization would then follow. This is such a vast take that I would have to focus on just a atomic part of globalization theory. I am particularly interested in theorizing the globalization of enculturation. Accordingly, I would be well-advised to consider the Mcdonaldization, as one of a number of globalization care fores.Ritzer 2004 puts forward the view that globalization can be in general identified as the worldwide proliferation of practices, transaction and social life, meanwhile, the people tend to share a new global consciousness across continents.In term of the theorizi ng the cultural aspects of globalization, Pieterse (2003) suggests that there are three major approaches divided into cultural unalikeialism, convergence and hybrization.More specifically, starting and foremost, with conceive to lasting difference, Pieterse (2003) admits that the differences in goal perspective exist among the contrastive regions and countries. To a great extent, in this theory area, some people like Huntington (1996) believe that the people tend to persist the local anesthetic purification, civilization and bear on culturally manifest. However, Ritzer (2004) believes that compare to the radically view of Huntington, the existence of a distinct attitude is callable to a clash between the developed countries like the Unites States and the developing countries like China. With the advent of an increasingly modern development once the economic develop to a certain level, the developing countries like China will seek and adapt some an some other(prenominal) cultures to enter the global merchandise totally, while at the same time the developed countries tend to delicious what they provide. Therefore, in Ritzer s view, Huntington s opinion is likely to exist on the short time.Secondly, with respect to cultural maturation sameness, Ritzer (2004) battery-acids out that global assimilation is a tendency, which means to some degree the cultures of the world are regarded as bring abouting increasingly the same. To illustrate, Ritzer (2004) also figures that cultural convergence is characterized by the way of Cultural imperialism , westernization, Americanization, Mcdonaldization and world culture .Last but not the least, with regard to ongoing salmagundi of cultures, jibe to the view of Pieterse (2003), hybrization emphasized on growing multifariousness combination of the unique mixtures of local as well as global, thereby resulting in unique phenomenon in different areas. It is important to point out that to some extent it is the s ame meaning of the glocalization , which has been indicated by Robertson (2001). Also, Robertson (2001) place the difference between globalization and glocalization, for example, the core concepts of globalization include capitalism, Americanization and Mcdonaldization whereas the principal(prenominal) ideas of glocalization include hybrization, creolization and heterogeneization. To put it in another(prenominal) way, he believes that the outcome of globalization processes in future is likely to be the ongoing open-ended mixing that is glocalization.Accordingly, with respect to Mcdonaldization theory, it is critical to point out that the sociologist George Ritzer (1993) coins the McDonaldization in his book The McDonaldization of Society. He describes that McDonaldization is the process by which the beliefs of the fast-food restaurant seem to play a dominating role in the increasing number of sectors of American society and the rest of the world.On the one hand, Mcdonaldization i s clearly closely interrelated to a global cultural perspective as well as the influence of McDonald s and McDonaldization has a dramatic spread of the worldwide homogenization of societies. To illustrate, Bryman (2003) along with impound (2004) indicates that McDonaldization is not only the extension of the sameness of food products but also the proliferation of a series of business principles as well as feat systems about the world. Moreover, it is worth noting that freehand mack Index is the significant baron of McDonaldization, published by a prestigious magazine, the economist. It demonstrates the purchasing capacity of versatile currencies in the world dependent on the local price (in dollars) of the Big Mac as an identical basket of goods and services in individually country. Meanwhile, Thomas (1999) in New York Times Magazine states that Big Mac Index creates the ubiquity and unique role of McDonald s or so the world.On the other hand, Mcdonaldization may be consid ered as not only an fiction to drive the globalization process but also a major motor force in the future development of globalization. More specifically, fit in to the opinion of George Ritzer (2004), admittedly, a certain degree of glocalization happens with Mcdonaldization, but the majority of aspects of Mcdonaldization relate to globalization that the existence of homogeneity more than heterogeneity is related to the process of Mcdonaldization. For example, Robertson (2001) demonstrates that in glocalization theory, social processes are contingent and depend on the different geographic areas while in globalization theory, social processes are deterministic. compendium of the McDonald s within Globalization modelAn analysis of McDonald s establish on the theory of the globalization of culture as well as Mcdonaldization would then follow. To put it another way, the rally issue would be discussed that the detail of ethnographic studies and a general sociological understanding o f the globalization culture as well as Mcdonaldization, which is consistent or inconsistent.In terms of differences in cultures existing among the different regions and countries are demonstrated by Pieterse (2003), which is the same story. To illustrate, nowadays McDonald s for Chinese tends to be an excellent place to have fun together in particular the students group and parents comply with children while Mcdonald s for British is likely to be a convenient and inexpensive place to deal with hungry. More specifically, Mcdonald s for Chinese children is regarded as a pleasure ground more than a fast food restaurant. Thus, different cultures lead to the different decoration designs in the children playground area, which seems to provide more facilities like the slide and the wooden horse in China.However, whether Mcdonald s American culture will be never-ending in the long-term as suggested by Huntington (1996) or will last for in a short-term as indicated by Ritzer (2004) is still to be proved by time. It is worth noting the third possibility of Pieterse (2003), where it is may be likely to increase diversity association of the unique mixtures of local culture as well as Mcdonald s America culture and then leads to a unique phenomenon in Mcdonald s among different areas.With respect to Mcdonaldization and the influential globalizing flow, an illustration of global culture assimilation is argued by George Ritzer (2004), which is a true story.In the first place, it is common acknowledge that McDonald s is the leading global foodservice retailer which occupies a central place in American popular culture. According to McDonald s appointed website, the statistics points out that McDonalds operates over 31,000 restaurants in 119 countries around the world and employs more than 1.5 one million million people.In the second place, in mentioning McDonald s worldwide carrying into action system, the McDonald s staff in Bradford told me that in general McDonald s op eration around the world is nearly the same because any McDonald s systems are associated with the centrally controlled system of American headquarters and every individual who is working in McDonald s knows what is expected of him based on uniform McDonald s operation and training manual. Specifically, the McDonald s staff in Bradford also told me some regulations and documents like 8 steps making a McDonalds Big Mac according to the McDonald s operation and training manual.Therefore, the situation in McDonald s for workers, customers and managers is around the same. For example, a year ago I lived in China or this year I live in England, McDonald s for me offers the best available way to get from being hungry to being full due to the similar convenience as well as efficiency both China and England. It is worth noting that it also corresponds to the theory of the dimensions of Mcdonaldization indicated by George Ritzer (2004), who claims that efficiency, predictability, calculabili ty and control through nonhuman technology are the important elements of the McDonald s success. In other words, efficiency is generally beneficial to customers who are able to obtain what they consider more quickly.As regards Mcdonaldization the core concepts of globalization demonstrated by Robertson (2001) during the observation, are found to be a little different. The main reason is that the local strategies of McDonald s in different countries suppose the integration of McDonald s American culture and local culture. For instance, McDonald s managers in 2008 realized that the spectacular exceptional Games would be held in Beijing began on August 8th 2008 at 080808 PM, when the people around the world would be happy with excitement and pretension. Thus, McDonalds unveil four new Olympic-themed television advertisements developing its im lovin it brand essence with the fast one and ideals of the Olympic Games to attract people in particular Chinese.On the other hand, it is wor th noting that George Ritzer (2004) who admitted there are some things which reflect the features of glocalization in Mcdonald s whereas the main characteristic corresponds to the globalization and the sameness more than difference in the process of Mcdonaldization in contemporary. To a great extent, it is true, that although there are some modifications based on different countries the demand for the merchandise specific marketing strategies of Mcdonald s, the main business model and culture idea of Mcdonald s is constant like nonhuman technology service.ConclusionOverall, it is important to point out that the situation between McDonald s in Bradford and McDonald s in China was same similarities rather than differences, which takes into account abundant elements such as business system, nationalities, behaviour, menu and decoration based on the questionnaires, observation, communications and memory. Meanwhile, the fact of ethnographic studies and a general sociological understandi ng of the globalization culture as well as Mcdonaldization are likely to correspond with each other mainly.Subsequently, there are some points I am partial to reduplicate as followed.First and foremost, admittedly, a comparison of McDonald s in Bradford and McDonald s in China on the basis of an ethnographic study reveals that McDonald s has become a symbol of American culture symbolising inexpensive, convenient and nonhuman technology service in people s minds with a global influence under the heading of globalization.Secondly, the situation of McDonald s and Mcdonaldization reflect the characteristics of global cultural homogeneity beyond the features of differentialism. To put it in another way, the Mcdonaldization is a type of the idea of worldwide homogeneity of societies through the influence of multinational corporations.Thirdly, in my personal perspective, the development process of McDonald s perhaps considered as a process of dealing with the conflict of local culture an d American McDonald s culture and assimilating each other in order to balance this paradox. Therefore, McDonald s paradox to a great extent can be considered as the rivalry between globalization and interregional in terms of cultural aspects.Last but not the least, nearly the same as Pieterse s (2003) opinion, as far as I am concerned, Mcdonald s in future may be likely to grow with diversity connection of the unique mixtures of local culture as well as Mcdonald s America culture and then create a unique phenomenon in Mcdonald s among different areas. Accordingly, the outcome of globalization processes is open-ended leading to a mixture in the future.

Exploratory Paper On Political Ideology History Essay

Exploratory Paper On Political Ideology muniment EssayPolitical ideology is defined as a strike out of ideals and principles created for social order. Thus, after much consideration and deliberation, I chose to work on Political Ideology.Politics appeals to me because I have been intrigued by how it can tickle pink the masses with powerful rhetorics by charismatic personalities. President Barack Obama is a policy-making leader whom I greatly admire for his oratory eloquence displayed during his initiative rescuees in the U.S. Presidential Elections 2008. I was captivated by his Yes We Can speech which moves the crowd to disperse all doubts about their future and believing that the States will succeed under his lead.Marxism-Leninism and Maoism are communism by temper but takes on a different trope to cater to the pile in their respective countries, Russia and mainland get upa.Marxism-Leninism is a political ideology that is base on Valdimir Lenins writing on the ideas of K arl Marx. Marxism advocates fabianism while being heavily hypercritical on capitalism which he believes is the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, which centre a connection run by the upper echelons of society to their own benefit. His idea of socialism is that the society will be run by the working(a) phratry known as the dictatorship of the proletariat. Marxs ideas were heavily influenced by the class scramble in society.One monumental event that epitomises Marxism-Leninism ideology would be the 1917 October variety in Petrograd, currently known as St. Petersburg. Valdimir Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik ( communist) society that summitpled the Russian Provisional government and created a new form of Russia called Soviet Russia which borrowed Marxism ideologies along with it.The Bolshevik won over the support of the majority of the workers and soldiers because of the repressive and autocratic ruling by the imperialist Tsar which resulted in declining frugal and soci al conditions. The working class was unhappy with long working hours, overcrowded trapping problems with poor sanitary control, low wages which was made worst by increases in cost of living due to Russias involvement in dry land War one at that time. Thus Lenin-led Bolshevik appealed to the masses and go about little resistance when they staged a coup, occupying government buildings and strategic points.In China, Maoism is a political ideology that straddles along the Marxism-Leninist line. Peasants and farming forms the fundamental and building blocks of a socialist society. The loss between Lenins Russia and Maos China is dictatorship of the working class while another is the dictatorship of the peasants.Mao Zedong rise to the top of the Chinese Communist Party was nothing short of spectacular. He was a founding member of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 and was actively involved in spreading Marxist ideas to the peasants in his hometown of Hunan Province. The most signifi cant event in the history of communist China is The Long marchland in 1934-1935. During the Zunyi conference, Zhou Enlai was ousted as the Chief Political Officer of the society while Mao Zedong was elected Chairman of the Politburo with backings from the military leaders and he has never relinquished his position since.Mao Zedong was credited for unifying China as a Peoples Republic and away from imperialism (Qing Dynasty) and feudalism (War-Lords). Also, the Long treat gave the Chinese Communist Party the reputation that they are willing to wear hardship for the people and to formulate policies on land reform that would quash the plight of Chinese peasants thus gaining wide support from the peasants.Another difference from Marxism-Leninism is the deep belief that man can prevail in unpleasant conditions and achieved things through strong willpower. He personally pushed through this ideology during the wide Leap Forward (1958-1960) and the Cultural Revolution (1968-1976). Mao ism ideologies can also be found in Peru and Nepal.Locally, Singapore also had brushes with communist in the past. The Barisan Socialis was a former left-wing political party formed in 1961 by former members of the PAP (Peoples Action Party) and led by Dr Lee Siew Choh and Lim Chin Siong. The party was accused by the PAP to be a communist front and deemed a threat to national security which resulted in many Barisan Socialis members arrested and imprisoned without trial during operation coldstore by the internal security department.Singapore, widely regarded as a democratic society, would be understandably not be tolerant of the Barisan Socialis, supposedly advocates of communism since that would be conflict of political ideologies. However, based on an extract below, I felt that it could be reasons of a aider nature.In a recently declassified Colonial office papers, mightiness Philip Moore, who was Deputy High Commissioner of Britain in Singapore from 1963 to 1965, was quoted as sayingHe (Lee) went on to suggest that in order to avoid the Communists taking over, he would create a situation in which the UK Commissioner would be force to hang up the Constitution. This might be done either by the Singapore giving medication inviting a Russian trade mission to Singapore thus forcing a constitutional crisis, or by instigating riots and disorder, requiring the discussion of British troops. I did however, form the impression that he was quite certain he would lose a general election and was seriously toying with the thought of forcing British intervention in order to prevent his political enemies from forming a government. (CO 1030/1149 p.95, para 3)In history, after revolutions for a change in political ideology, there would be power struggle for leadership as can be seen in the Chinese Communist Party. Mao Zedong wiped out all that threatens his position as leader and started the Cultural Revolution. In the Soviet Union, after Lenins death, Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky fought for power to lead. In the end, Stalin ordered the assassination of Trotsky.The lesson to be learned from history is that power struggles for leadership happens before, during and after a revolution. Leaders clinging to power would use all means to consolidate their status by eliminating political rivals. It is no difference disregardless of political ideologies.

The Use of Punctuation in the Writing of Libyan Students Essay

punctuation mark in side of meatParkes (1992), in his invaluable study of the memoir of punctuation, statesPunctuation was developed by stages which coincided with changing patterns of literacy, whereby new generations of articulateers in divers(prenominal) historical situations imposed new demands on the written medium itself (p. 2).Punctuation is not a static model and even if we confine the intelligence to early modern and modern English, it has changed quite considerably across sentence (Numberg, 1999). The uses of punctuation are conventional they change over time and neuter from words to language. on that point have been to be conventions or rules, for with surface these, punctuation would be wholly idiosyncratic and the possibilities of using it to facilitate effective communication would be either lost of severely hindered (Beard & et al., 2009). Some rules of punctuation are needed if we violate them, we have made mistakes in punctuation. Others are optional our prize is basing on the effect and emphasis we desire to deliver. To that extent, Greenbaum and Nelson (2002 183) say punctuation is an art. There was a considerable debate between two schools one believed punctuation should be based on elocution (how a sentence is spoken when it is read out aloud) and the other believed punctuation should be based on the grammar (Petit 2003 Curtis, 2007 planetary house and Robinson, 1996 Parkes, 1992). The latter (the syntactic-based approach) is the one we use today, which means the debate was won by grammar school. Recently, Dawkins (2003 and 1995) has come out with a new believe teaching punctuation should be based on the meaning (the semantic- based approach). Dawkins (2003) assumes that writers have an intuitive sense of the independent claus... ..., p. 349). Moreover, Chiang (1999) claims that in EFL writing, the sentence(s) may appear to be detach order, but in incongruent places due to inappropriate use or non use of punctuation. Using the premise that students often have weak language skills, Warner (1979) surveyed 431 postsecondary students using four tools students scores on an heading test, an in-class writing sample, an editing exercise, and a questionnaire about background in English and attitude toward grammar and writing. She found that the largest number of errors in the writing occurred in punctuation. She came out with The high error rate in punctuation resulted from 1) the students not conditioned the rules of punctuation, 2) knowing the rules but not being able to apply them to their birth writing, or 3) constructing such poor sentences that correct punctuation was impossible (p.18).

Analysis of The Man He Killed, Reconciliation, and Dreamers Essay

Analysis of The Man He Killed, Reconciliation, and DreamersIn the chosen poems, Thomas inflexible, Walt Whitman, and Sigfried Sassooneach countenance a common viewpoint state of warfare brings out the worst in man, a feeling buried profoundly inside the heart. Even with this clotting of the mind due to the twisting ways of war, a flicker of remorse, a dream of several(prenominal)place, something else stillexists within the shrewd thought. These poems express hope, the hope that warwill not be necessary. They immortalise that man only kills because he must, notbecause of some inbred mania for death. These three authors express thisviewpoint in their own ways in their poems The Man He Killed,Reconciliation, and Dreamers.In The Man He Killed, Hardy speaks about the absurdity of war. He givesa narrative of how he kills a foe, and that this foe could be a friend ifthey met by some old ancient inn, instead of the battlefield. Hardy says...quaint and curious war is...you shoot a fel low down youd treat if metwhere any ban is... In this Hardy speaks how war twists the mind, and similarlymakes you kill people you have no personal vendetta against.In Reconciliation, Whitman shows the devastation of war. In a war, youkill someone and even if you win, you lose. Whitman describes a man mourningoer the death of his foe. He rejoices over the ultimate death of war scenic that war and all its deeds of carnage must...be utterly lost. Healso feels great remorse over his so called e...

Online Newspaper Vs. Print Version -- essays research papers

The fills of the Southeast Missourian online paper may seem so much(prenominal) more fitting with this day and age, but the traditional newspaper interlingual rendition still offers their subscribers a lot more information. The print variant organizes the theme with pictures from various sections located at the top, side, and bottom in order to lure the reader in to the names and advertisements. The online strain is real to the point in its content in the fact that the Southeast Missourian does not rent to sell the online version to the public or subscribers, this is seen online with minimal advertisements that deal directly with the surrounding orbit . With the unappealing online version having only a basic structure to the inside contents along with two pictures, and a lead story, it seems more alike(p) a quick reference of news for the person that doesnt have time to sit back and browse the newsprint edition.The Web version displayed a different story from the print ed newspaper. Another aspect of the online edition that didnt appeal to me was the format of the articles. The articles were broken up into lengthy segmented paragraphs this gets very tedious by having to scroll down the screen to read. Although the contexts of the articles are the same, the newsprint edition is more appealing in the sense that each article has at least one or more pictures relating specifically to it, this helps with the reading by referring back to the pictures surrounding...

PostTraumatic Stress Disorder and Vietnam Veterans Essay -- Vietnam Wa

The power of the human brain is a mystery of science. For example, maculation certain parts of the brain are well known to instruction certain bodily functions, the brains memory capacity is just now existence discovered. Scientists believe that only a small fraction of the brain is very used, and its potential power is much greater than one may stay or believe. Its magnate to view and store information is still not totally understood by scientists today. This causes a special problem in the plowment certain mental illnesses such as Post-Traumatic tense malady. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, or PTSD, is a reaction to a traumatic event in which death, serious injury, or the threat of either is present. The most common feature of this illness is among veterans of war, and it is very common among those who served in Vietnam. Vietnam veterans who suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and do not receive medical treatment are at a high risk of suicide and other hor rible demises. They grow despondent and hard to talk to. It is as if the sufferers of PTSD are in a different reality. The traumatic events play back in their musical theme and they have a tough time relating with people. Louise Erdrich illustrates this in The Red Convertible. The nobble story is about two teenage Native American boys, Lyman and Henry, and the tie up of their love for each other symbolized by a red convertible. champion summer they buy a red convertible and travel across North America. When they return home, the older of the two, Henry, gets drafted in the war and spends up to tether years in Vietnam with several of them as a POW. When he comes back, the personal effects of PTSD are obvious, but medical treatment is unavailable to him on his reservat... ...ther kind of trauma related illness to its veterans, Vietnam raised true cognizance of the disorder in the United States and around the world. The treatment or drop there of treatment Vietna m veterans received, directly reflected the outcome of their lives. For those represented by Henry, who were devoid minorities lacking proper care and medical help, the outcome was almost sure as shooting death or at best a long involution with substance abuse or ones own mind. The aftermath of Vietnam showed the government how to treat its hereafter veterans after their wartime experiences. It also caused them to rethink the level of causalities in future wars (Knox 112). Through the use of medicines, counseling, and a fairer distribution of veteran benefits, the next sort out of war veterans should have a better outlook to the future and the ability to lead productive postwar lives.