Barriers of Research Utilization for Nurses

C L I N I C A L N U R S I N G IS S U E S Bridging the divide a comply of checks doctrines escorting roadblocks to, and facilitators of, look consumption in the habituate setting Alison Marg bet Hutchinson BAppSc, MBioeth PhD Candidate, Victorian mettle for comfort Practice look for, School of treat, University of Melbourne, Australia Linda Johnston BSc, PhD, Dip N Professor in Neonatal breast feeding look for, Royal Childrens Hospital, Melbourne, and Associate Direlectroconvulsive therapyor, Victorian heart for Nursing Practice explore, Melbourne, Australia Submitted for payoff 4 March 2003 Accepted for publication 29 August 2003Correspondence Alison M. Hutchinson School of Nursing University of Melbourne 1/723 Swanston St Carlton, VIC 3053 Australia Teleph angiotensin-converting enzyme ? 61 3 8344 0800 E-mail emailprotected com H U T C H I N S O N A . M . & J O H N S T O N L . ( 2 0 0 4 ) daylightbook of clinical Nursing 13, 304315 Bridging the divide a pile of wet- nourishs faiths regarding barriers to, and facilitators of, seek design session in the blueprint setting Background. Many searchers apply inquiryd the barriers to look into usance in wander to oercome them and identify strategies to totallyeviate enquiry recitation.However, the look use cattle ranch be a persistent issue for the c be for profession. Aims and objectives. The aim of this acquire was to gain an mind of perceive in? uences on obliges employ of enquiry, and explore what differences or commonalities constitute among the ? ndings of this look into and those of studies that agree been conducted in various countries during the past 10 eld. Design. give sucks were look backed to paint a picture their opinions regarding barriers to, and facilitators of, look custom.The musical official document comprised a 29- compass point effectualated questionnaire, titled Barriers to look into Utilisation outstrip (BARRIERS Scale), an eight- pa rticular collection plate of facilitators, provision for respondents to record supernumerary barriers and/or facilitators and a series of demographic questions. Method. The questionnaire was administered in 2001 to whole nurses (n ? 761) pass awaying at a major article of faith hospital in Melbourne, Australia. A 45% reply rate was achieved. Results. big barriers to inquiry manipulation account include epoch constraints, privation of ace of avail adequate to(p) interrogation publications, insuf? ient chest to deepen dress, deficient skills in slender appraisal and lack of attendant for execution of cats-paw of seek ? ndings. Greatest facilitators to question make session report include availability of more epoch to brush up and go for enquiry ? ndings, availability of more pertinent enquiry and cuss support. Conclusion. One of the most striking features of the ? ndings of the present learning is that perceptions of Australian nurses are remarkabl y accordant with describe perceptions of nurses in the US, UK and Northern Ireland during the past decade. relevance to clinical traffic pattern.If the expenditure of investigate manifest in go for results in better outcomes for our patients, this behoves us, as a profession, to address issues skirt support for execution of question ? ndings, authority to 304 O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd clinical breast feeding issues Barriers to, and facilitators of, seek exercising alternate consecrate, age constraints and ability to smallly appraise search with conviction and a sense of urgency. Key words barriers to query utilization, facilitators of look for utilization, look dissemination, question executing, explore utilizationIntroduction and background For over 25 long time enquiry utilization has been discussed in the breast feeding literature with growing fervor and amid increasing calls for the enforce of question ? ndings in practice. extraly, the eviden ce-based practice figurehead, which emanated in the aboriginal 1990s ( leaven-Based Medicine Working Group, 1992) has proud crystalizeed the splendor of incorpo rating query ? ndings into practice. Furthermore, controversy contact the achievement of professional status has resulted in an increased awareness of the lack for a search-based body of noesis to underpin treat practice.Gennaro et al. (2001, p. 314) contend part interrogation in practice non scarcely bene? ts patients but alike strengthens sustenance for as a profession. If nursing is truly a profession, and non just a billet or an occupation, nurses hurt to be able to continually mensurate the care they give and be accountable for providing the ruff possible care. Evaluating nursing care rigorouss that nurses in adjunct have to evaluate nursing question and determine if there is a better dash to provide care. Twelve years prior, Walsh & Ford (1989) warned that the professional integrity of nurs ing was threatened by dependence upon attend-based practice.Similarly, Winter (1990, p. 138) cautioned that conduct of nursing practice in this manner is the antithesis of professionalism, a barrier to independence, and a detriment to type care. Winter therefore, recommended that nurses evaluate their status as enquiry consumers, to identify problems in this area, and to develop means to better give question ? ndings (p. 138). Evidence-based practice, which should comprise the physical exertion of broad ranging sources of evidence, including the clinicians expertise and patient p occupyence (Sackett et al. , 1996), includes the use of seek evidence as a subset (Estabrooks, 1999). legitimate with the classi? cation of knowledge utilization, common chord types of research use have been outlined (Stetler, 1994a,b Berggren, 1996). The ? rst is described as instrumental use and involves playacting on research ? ndings in explicit, direct ways, for example application of researc h ? ndings in the development of a clinical pathway. The second is termed conceptual use and involves using research ? ndings in less speci? c ways, for example changing thinking. The ? nal type of research use, described as symbolic use, involves the use of research results to support a predetermined position.The nursing literature is consume with examples of bound use of research in practice and discussion meet sensed barriers to research utilization (Hunt, 1981 Gould, 1986 Closs & Cheater, 1994 Lacey, 1994). Despite this, the phenomenon of the researchpractice gap, the gap amidst the conduct of research and use of that research in practice, remains an issue of major enormousness for the nursing profession. Many researchers have explored the barriers to research uptake in order to overcome them and identify strategies to facilitate research utilization (Kirchhoff, 1982 MacGuire, 1990 wither et al. 1991a,b, 1995b Closs & Cheater, 1994 Hicks, 1994, 1996 Lacey, 1994 Rizzuto et al. , 1994 Hunt, 1996 Walsh, 1997a,b). Hunt (1981) suggested that nurses fail to utilize research ? ndings because they do non know about them, do not understand them, do not believe them, do not know how to apply them, and are not exited to use them. According to Hunt (1997), the barriers to research utilization and, therefore, to evidence-based practice fall into ? ve main categories research, access to research, nurses, process of utilization and presidency.Self-reported utilization of research is one method that has frequently been devoured to elicit the end of research utilization. Responses to selected research ? ndings have been used to elicit and explore respondents awareness and use of respective ? ndings (Kete? an, 1975 Berggren, 1996). Numerous researchers have as well under taken to investigate, through ego-reporting, the opinions of nurses in regard to barriers to research utilization in the practice setting. shrivel up et al. (1991b) explored research utiliza tion in the US using a postal questionnaire titled the Barriers to research Utilization Scale (BARRIERS Scale).Their purpose was to develop a mechanism to measure out the perceptions of clinicians, administrators and academics in regard to barriers to research utilization in clinical practice. Rogers (1995) simulation of diffusion of triggers, a theoretical framework, which describes the process of communication, through certain convey at heart a social ne twork, of an idea, practice or object over time, was used to develop a 29-item cuticle. The questionnaire was sent out to a random sample of 5000 members of the American accommodates Association with a resulting response rate of 40%. 305O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, daybook of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315 A. M. Hutchinson and L. Johnston On the info generated, Funk et al. (1991b) undertook an important reckon analysis, to elicit a quartetsome- instrument settlement which closely corresponded with Rogers (1995) diffusion of innovations computer simulation. The constituents translated into traits of the adoptive parent comprising the nurses research taxs, skills and awareness the organization incorporating setting barriers and limitations the innovation including qualities of the research and communication including handiness and presentation of the research.Items associated with the clinical setting, a characteristic of the organization, were perceive as the main barriers to research utilization. These included the views that nurses lack suf? cient authority to implement flip nurses have insuf? cient time to implement change and there is a lack of cooperation from medical lag. Approximately 21% of the respondents in this con were classi? ed as administrators. Over three quarters of the items on the BARRIERS Scale were rated as big(p) or cushion barriers by over half(a) the administrators. The administrators identi? d chemical elements relating to the nurse, the organisational setting and the presentation of research among the superior barriers. Overall, they cited the organizational setting as the strikingest barrier to research use. Approximately 46% of the respondents were classi? ed as clinicians (nurses working in the clinical setting). The clinicians firely identi? ed work outs associated with the organizational setting as being the greatest barriers to research utilization. They rated all eight regions associated with the setting in the height 10 barriers to research utilization.The clinicians rated sensed lack of authority to change patient care procedures, insuf? cient time on the job to implement refreshing ideas and being unaware of the research as the pilfer three barriers to research utilization. The BARRIERS Scale (Funk et al. , 1991b) has been used extensively since it was certain in 1991, as one method to explore the perceived in? uences on nurses utilization of research ? ndings in their practice. At least 17 studies that employ ed the BARRIERS Scale to elicit opinions of nurses regarding barriers to research utilization in practice have been reported in the nursing literature.Most studies reported the barriers in bedded order according to the percentage of respondents who rated items as cut back or great barriers. Insuf? cient time to read research and/or implement new ideas was rated in the top three barriers in 13 studies (Funk et al. , 1991a, 1995a Carroll et al. , 1997 Dunn et al. , 1997 Lewis et al. , 1998 Nolan et al. , 1998 Rutledge et al. , 1998 Retsas & Nolan, 1999 Closs et al. , 2000 Parahoo, 2000 Retsas, 2000 Grif? ths et al. , 2001 Marsh et al. , 2001 Parahoo & McCaughan, 2001).A perceived lack of authority to change patient care procedures was reported in the top three barriers in eight studies (Funk et al. , 1991a Walsh, 1997a Nolan 306 et al. , 1998 Closs et al. , 2000 Parahoo, 2000 Retsas, 2000 Marsh et al. , 2001 Parahoo & McCaughan, 2001). In eight studies, the item statistical analyses are not understandable, was cited in the top three barriers (Funk et al. , 1995b Dunn et al. , 1997 Walsh, 1997a,b Rutledge et al. , 1998 Parahoo, 2000 Grif? ths et al. , 2001 Marsh et al. , 2001). Inadequate facilities for effectuation was cited in the top three barriers in ? e studies (Kajermo et al. , 1998 Nolan et al. , 1998 Retsas, 2000 Grif? ths et al. , 2001 Marsh et al. , 2001). Finally, the item lack of awareness of research ? ndings was reported in the top three barriers in four studies (Funk et al. , 1991a, 1995a Carroll et al. , 1997 Lewis et al. , 1998 Retsas & Nolan, 1999). It is spotd that these studies comprised vary populations of nurses, employed differing take methods, used sample sizes ranging from 58 to 1368 respondents and resultant response rates ranged from 27 to 76%.In some studies, minor rewording of a limited number of items in the tool had been undertaken. Furthermore, some studies included only 28 of 29 barrier items included in the original BARRIER S Scale. portion analysis, a statistical proficiency aimed at reducing the number of variables by grouping those that relate, to form congenatorly independent subgroups (Crichton, 2001 Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), was undertaken in a limited number of these studies. In the UK, Dunn et al. (1997) tested the element influence proposed by Funk et al. (1991b), using con? rmatory factor analysis, a complex statistical technique used to test a heory or stick (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Attempts to load distributively item onto a single identi? ed factor were found to be unsuccessful and they concluded that the US model was inappropriate for their information. Closs & Bryar (2001) further explored the appropriateness of the BARRIERS Scale for use in the UK through wildcat factor analysis. The model identi? ed included the following four factors bene? ts of research for practice, quality of research, approachability of research, and resources for instruction execution. Finally, M arsh et al. (2001) tested, using con? matory factor analysis, a revised recital of the BARRIERS Scale. The revision comprised minor changes in wording very much(prenominal) as permutation of the term administrator with the term manager. A factor mental synthesis that was not possible to interpret resulted and they concluded that the model proposed by Funk et al. (1991b) was not supported and had limited sub outdo validity in the UK setting. In the light of these ? ndings and those of Dunn et al. (1997), Marsh et al. (2001) suggested that the factor model arising from the original BARRIERS Scale was not carry on in the international context.However, in Australia, Retsas & Nolan (1999) undertook an exploratory factor analysis resulting in a three-factor solution comprising (i) nurses perceptions about the usefulness of research in O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, journal of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315 Clinical nursing issues Barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilizatio n clinical practice, (ii) generating change to practice based on research, and (iii) accessibility of research. Again, in Australia, a four-factor solution arose from an separate exploratory factor analysis undertaken by Retsas (2000).The resulting factors were conceptualized as accessibility of research ? ndings, anticipated outcomes of using research, organizational support to use research, and support from former(a)s to use research. Given these ? ndings in the Australian context, an exploratory factor analysis was employed in the present arena to explore what model would arise from entropy generated using the BARRIERS Scale. The aim of the present study was to gain an understanding of perceived in? uences on nurses utilization of research in a particular practice setting, and explore what differences or commonalities exist between the ? dings of this research and those of studies which have been conducted during the past 10 years in various countries around the world. This stu dy was undertaken as part of a spectacular study designed to explore the phenomenon of research utilization by nurses in the clinical setting. The relative importance of barrier and facilitator items and the factor model arising from this data lead in? uence development of future stages of this larger study. who then took responsibility for distribution. It cannot be guaranteed, however, that this process in fact resulted in all nurses receiving the questionnaire.The questionnaire included the 29-item BARRIERS Scale in addition to an eight-item facilitator scale and a series of demographic questions. The respondents were asked to return completed questionnaires in the self-addressed envelope supplied, by any placing them in the internal mail or placing them in the return box seat supplied in their ward or department. Return of completed questionnaires implied consent to inscribe and all responses were anonymous. scene The setting for this study was a 310-bed major breeding hospital offering specia reheel services in Melbourne, Australia. SampleApproximately 960 nurses work in the organization. All Registered Nurses working during the 4-week distribution time frame were invited to complete the questionnaire. This self-selecting, thingmabob sample therefore, excluded nurses on leave at the time of the study. The study The research question addressed in this study was What are nurses perceptions of the barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilization in the practice setting? Instrument The questionnaire comprised three sections. The ? rst section contained the 29 randomly ordered items from the Barriers to Research Utilization Scale (Funk et al. 1991b), which respondents were asked to rate, on a four-point Likert type scale, the outcome to which they believed severally item was a barrier to their use of research in practice. The options included 1 ? to no extent, 2 ? to a pocket-sized extent, 4 ? to a moderate extent and 5 ? to a large extent. A no opinion ? 3 option was also given. The respondents were then asked to nominate and rate (1 ? greatest barrier, 2 ? second greatest barrier, and 3 ? third greatest barrier) the items they considered to be the top three barriers.Further to this, the respondents were given the hazard to constitute and rate, according to the above-mentioned Likert scale, any supererogatory items they perceived to be barriers. The second section of the accompany contained eight items ( get across 4), which respondents were asked to rate according to the extent to which they considered them to be a facilitator of research utilization using the Likert scale described above. The respondents were also asked to nominate and rate, from 1 to 3, the items they considered to be the three greatest facilitators of research utilization.Again, the respondents were given the probability to list and rate, according to the 307 Method A survey design was chosen to elicit opinions of nurses. This method was sele cted because the BARRIERS Scale, a validated questionnaire, based on the work of Funk et al. (1991b), and designed to elicit nurses views about barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilization in their practice, was found to have high dependableness. Approval to use the tool was gained from the authors. consent was also given to include questions crafted by the investigators to elicit nurses opinions about facilitators of research utilization.Approval to conduct the project was sought and granted by the hospital research ethics committee to ensure the rights and dignity of all respondents were protected. Nurses working during the 4-week survey distribution time frame (n ? 761) were invited to complete the self-administered questionnaire. It was intended that every nurse receive a personally addressed envelope containing the questionnaire and a self-addressed return envelope. To facilitate this, the envelopes were hand delivered to a nominated nurse on each ward or departmen t O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, diary of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315A. M. Hutchinson and L. Johnston Likert scale, perceived facilitators not listed in the survey. Section 3 of the survey included a series of demographic questions. Validity Content validity, i. e. whether the questions in the tool accurately measure what is supposed to be measured (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 1998), of the instrument was supported by the literature on research utilization, the research utilization questionnaire developed by the Conduct and Utilization of Research in Nursing Project (Crane et al. , 1977), and data gathered from nurses. Input was also gained from experts in the ? ld of research utilization, nursing research, nursing practice and a psychometrician to establish face validity, i. e. whether the tool appears to measure the concept intended (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 1998), and content validity from an extensive list of potential items. Those items for which face and content validity were est ablished were retained. Further to fleeing of the instrument, two redundant items were included and some minor rewording of otherwise items resulted. The BARRIERS Scale has been found to have good reliability, with Cronbachs important coef? ients of between 0. 65 and 0. 80 for the four factors, and item- make sense correlations from 0. 30 to 0. 53 (Funk et al. , 1991b). Cronbachs alpha is a measure of internal consistency, which is cerebrate to the reliability of the instrument. A Cronbachs alpha of 0. 7 is considered to be good. Internal consistency is the extent to which items in the scale measure the same concept (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 1998). Item total correlations refer to the alliance between the question or item and the total scale score (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 1998). Data analysisData analysis was performed using statistical Package for the kindly Sciences (version 10. 0 SPSS Inc. , Chicago, IL, the States) software. Frequency and descriptive statistics were employe d to describe the demographic characteristics of respondents. analysis of these data indicated that a wide cross section of nursing round responded to the questionnaire. divisor analytic procedures were employed to reduce the 29 barrier items to factors. The no opinion responses (coded to be in the centre of the scale) were included in the factor analytic procedure, on the basis of statistical advice.Suitability of the data for undertaking factor analysis is determined by testing for sampling adequacy and sphericity. The KaiserMeyerOlkin invoice of Sampling Adequacy at 0. 83 was in excess of the recommended foster of 0. 6 (Kaiser, 1974), indicating that the 308 correlations or factor freightages, which re? ect the strength of the relationship between barrier items, were high. The Bartlett test of sphericity at 2118. 3 was statistically signi? cant (P 0. 001). On the basis of these results, factor analysis was considered appropriate.The factor analysis method employed consiste d of principal component analysis (PCA), a method of reducing a number of variables (barrier items) to groupings to aid commentary of the profound relationships between the variables (Crichton, 2000) whilst capturing as much of the segmentation in the data as possible. PCA revealed eight components with an eigenvalue exceeding one, indicating that up to eight factors could be retained in the ? nal factor solution. Inspection of the scree plot, a plot of the variance encompassed by the factors, failed to provide a clear indication for the number of factors to include.Eight factors were considered too some to be meaningful, thus factor solutions from two to cardinal factors were explored. A solution comprising four factors was considered most meaningful. Examination of the factor fills was then undertaken to determine which items belonged to each factor. Consistent with the procedure employed by Funk et al. (1991b), items were considered to have stringent if they had a factor l oading of 0. 4 or more. Varimax rotation, a statistical method employed to simplify and aid interpretation of factors, was then applied.Whilst factor analysis assists in reducing the number of variables to groupings and aids in interpretation of the underlying structure of the data, it does not identify the relative importance of single(a) items. Thus, while one factor may account for the largest pith of variance in the factor solution it does not mean that the items within that factor are the greatest barriers to research utilization. In order to determine the relative signi? cance of each barrier item, the number of respondents who reported them as a moderate or great barrier was calculated and items were circleed accordingly.Additional barriers recorded by participants were grouped thematically. Similarly, to determine the relative signi? cance of each facilitator item, the number of respondents who reported them as a moderate or great facilitator was calculated and items we re runed accordingly. Additional facilitators recorded by participants were grouped thematically. Results Demographics A total of 317 nurses returned the questionnaires, representing a 45% response rate, assuming that all nurses did, in fact, receive a personally addressed envelope. The age range of respondents was 43 years (minimum ? 1 years, O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, ledger of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315 Clinical nursing issues Barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilization maximum ? 64 years) while the range in years since registration was 42 years. The demographic characteristics of the nurses (Table 1) were consistent with those of the State of Victorias nursing workforce (The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 1999). promoter analysis A four-factor solution was selected as the most appropriate model arising from PCA of the 29 barrier items. This accounted for 39. % of the total variance in responses to all barrier items. The factor groupings includ ing the loading for each barrier item and the titles allocated to each factor are included in Table 2. According to the correlation coef? cient or factor loading measure of 0. 4, two items, research reports/articles are not published firm enough, and the research has not been replicated, failed to load on any of the four factors. Table 1 Nurse demographics (n ? 317) Variable Gender Male egg-producing(prenominal) Missing Age (years) Experience Registered Nurse (years) Clinical experience (years) years since most fresh quali? ation Highest quali? cation Division 2 certi? cate for registration Division 1 hospital certi? cate for registration Tertiary diploma/degree for registration medical specialist nursing certi? cate Graduate diploma Masters by coursework Masters by research Others (including education and guidance quali? cations) Missing Principle job go Clinical Administrative Research commandment Others Missing Research experience Yes No Missing N (%) Mean (SD) 24 (7. 6) 291 (91. 8) 2 (0. 6) 33. 8 (9. 73) 12. 6 (9. 95) 11. 35 (8. 8) 4. 28 (6. 52) 14 (4. 4) 23 (7. 3) 104 (32. 8) 26 34 9 1 87 (8. 2) (10. 7) (2. 8) (0. 3) (27. ) Factor 1, comprising eight items with loadings of 0. 73 to 0. 43, includes items relating to characteristics of the organization that in? uence research-based change. Eight items loaded onto factor 2 with loadings of 0. 66 to 0. 40. These items are associated with qualities of research and potential outcomes associated with the implementation of research ? ndings. Factor 3 with seven items loading 0. 60 to 0. 41, relates to the nurses research skills, beliefs and role limitations. Factor four refers to communication and accessibility of research ? ndings onto which ? ve items loaded 0. 67 to 0. 42.The four factor groupings comprising setting, nurse, research and presentation, generated in the US study 10 years ago (Funk et al. , 1991b), were similar to groupings that arose from factor analysis in the present study (Table 2). Cr onbachs alphas were calculated for each factor generated. For factors 13 the alpha coef? cients were 0. 75, 0. 74 and 0. 70, respectively, demonstrating good reliability. The alpha coef? cient for factor 4 was lower at 0. 54. The total scale alpha was 0. 86, which indicates that the scale can be considered accepted with this sample. Item-total correlations ranged from 0. 1 to 0. 60. Although a low correlation between some items and the total score was evident, deleting any of these items would have resulted in a reduction in reliability of the scale. Relative importance of barrier and facilitator items The percentages of items perceived by nurses as great or moderate barriers are summarized in Table 3. The respondents were also given the opportunity to list and rate any additional perceived barriers not included in the questionnaire. About 27% (85) of respondents authenticated a total of 174 barriers. However, analysis revealed that only 11% (36) of respondents actually identi? d additional barriers. The remainder had reiterated or reworded barrier items already included in the tool. The additional barrier items listed by respondents were grouped into themes, which included funding, organizational commitment, research training, implementation strategy and professional responsibility. The percentages of items perceived by nurses as great or moderate facilitators are summarized in Table 4. The respondents were also given the opportunity to list and rate additional perceived facilitators. Eighteen per cent (57) of respondents took the opportunity to record a total of 90 facilitators. Of these, 7. % (24) actually identi? ed additional facilitators whereas the remainder had rephrased or repeated items already included in the tool. Consistent with the themes identi? ed for the additional barriers were funding, organizational commitment, active participation in research 309 19 (6. 0) 252 28 6 10 15 6 (79. 5) (8. 8) (1. 9) (3. 2) (4. 7) (1. 9) 207 (65. 3) cv (33. 1) 5 (1. 6) O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315 A. M. Hutchinson and L. Johnston Table 2 BARRIERS Scale factors and factor loadings US factor groupings Factor loadings Communalities Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4Barrier item Factor 1 Organizational in? uences on research-based change Physician leave alone not cooperate with implementation Administration will not bequeath implementation The nurse does not flavors she/he has enough authority to change patient care procedures The facilities are inadequate for implementation Other staff are not supportive of implementation The nurse livelinesss results are not generalizable to own setting The nurse is averse to change/try new ideas Factor 2 Qualities of the research and potential outcomes of implementation The research has methodological inadequacies The literature reports con? cting results The conclusions drawn from the research are not justi? ed The research is not relevant to the nurses p ractice The nurse is uncertain whether to believe the results of the research The research is not reported clear and readably Statistical analyses are not understandable The nurse feels the bene? ts of changing practice will be minimal Factor 3 Nurses research skills, beliefs and role limitations The nurse sees little bene? for self The nurse does not feel capable of evaluating the quality of the research There is not a documented postulate to change practice The nurse does not see the value of research for practice The amount of research information is overwhelming The nurse is detached from knowledgeable chaps with whom to discuss the research There is insuf? cient time on the job to implement new ideas Factor 4 Communication and accessibility of research ? dings Research reports/articles are not readily open Implications for practice are not made clear The nurse is unaware of the research The relevant literature is not compiled in one place The nurse does not have time to re ad research Setting Setting Setting Setting Setting Setting Nurse 0. 55 0. 52 0. 42 0. 42 0. 34 0. 39 0. 36 0. 73 0. 71 0. 56 0. 54 0. 53 0. 49 0. 43 0. 09 0. 10 0. 06 0. 11 0. 17 0. 30 0. 01 A0. 02 A0. 01 0. 31 A0. 04 0. 19 0. 23 0. 41 0. 09 A0. 04 0. 05 0. 33 0. 02 0. 01 A0. 09 Research Research Research intro Research Presentation PresentationNurse 0. 46 0. 38 0. 44 0. 43 0. 46 0. 33 0. 33 0. 46 0. 17 0. 11 0. 11 0. 22 0. 27 0. 11 A0. 04 0. 36 0. 66 0. 59 0. 57 0. 55 0. 53 0. 49 0. 47 0. 40 0. 03 0. 12 0. 30 A0. 13 0. 32 0. 18 0. 03 0. 38 0. 00 0. 04 A0. 05 0. 25 0. 07 0. 19 0. 32 A0. 14 Nurse Nurse Nurse Nurse * Nurse Setting Presentation Presentation Nurse Presentation Setting 0. 57 0. 45 0. 35 0. 55 0. 29 0. 31 0. 38 0. 45 0. 47 0. 33 0. 25 0. 31 0. 23 A0. 04 A0. 04 0. 15 0. 05 0. 31 0. 28 0. 01 0. 06 A0. 04 0. 13 0. 22 0. 39 0. 26 0. 14 0. 47 A0. 01 0. 11 A0. 17 0. 00 0. 31 0. 09 0. 3 A0. 14 0. 60 0. 58 0. 57 0. 55 0. 51 0. 42 0. 41 0. 00 A0. 09 0. 16 0. 13 0. 26 0. 04 0. 21 0. 09 A0. 04 0. 15 0. 16 0. 31 0. 67 0. 60 0. 54 0. 45 0. 42 Two items, research reports/articles are not published fast enough and the research has not been replicated, did not load at the 0. 4 level in this analysis. *The item, the amount of research information is overwhelming failed to load on any factor in the Funk et al. model. process experience, strategy to ensure project completion, implementation strategies, and professional attitude.Discussion The present study generated a four-factor solution with similarities to that produced in the US by Funk et al. (1991b) and in the UK by Closs & Bryar (2001). The ? rst factor comprises characteristics of the organization and re? ects health professional and other resource support for change 310 associated with the implementation of research ? ndings. More broadly, the theme organizational commitment identi? ed following analysis of the additional perceived barriers listed by respondents, appears to be associated with this factor.O rganizational commitment, many respondents felt, would facilitate mobilization of resources to promote change. Factor 2 relates to qualities of research and potential outcomes associated with the implementation of research ? ndings. This factor re? ects the nurses reservations about reliability and validity of research ? ndings and conclusions, O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315 Clinical nursing issues Table 3 BARRIERS Scale items in rank order Barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilization Barrier items The nurse does not have time to read research There is insuf? ient time on the job to implement new ideas The nurse is unaware of the research The nurse does not feel she/he has enough authority to change patient care procedures Statistical analyses are not understandable The relevant literature is not compiled in one place Physicians will not cooperate with the implementation The nurse does not feel capable of evaluating the quality of the research The facilities are inadequate for implementation Other staff are not supportive of implementation Research reports/articles are not readily available The nurse feels results are not generalizable to own setting The amount of research information is overwhelming Implications for practice are not made clear The research is not reported clearly and readably The research has not been replicated The nurse is isolated from knowledgeable colleagues with whom to discuss the research Administration will not allow implementation The research is not relevant to the nurses practice The literature reports con? icting results The nurse feels the bene? s of changing practice will be minimal The nurse is uncertain whether to believe the results of the research Research reports/articles are not published fast enough The nurse is unwilling to change/try new ideas The research has methodological inadequacies The nurse sees little bene? t for self There is not a documented need to change p ractice The nurse does not see the value of research for practice The conclusions drawn from the research are not justi? ed account item as moderate or great barrier (%) 78. 3 73. 8 66. 2 64. 7 64. 1 58. 7 56. 1 55. 8 52 52 50. 8 50. 8 45. 7 45. 5 43. 3 41. 3 41 35 34. 4 34 31. 9 30. 9 30. 6 29. 4 25. 5 23. 3 22. 1 17 13. 8 Item mean score (SD) 4. 06 3. 9 3. 64 3. 51 3. 56 3. 51 3. 41 3. 3 3. 23 3. 16 3. 19 3. 09 3. 07 3. 0 3. 01 3. 16 2. 76 2. 88 2. 67 2. 87 2. 52 2. 58 2. 81 2. 34 2. 85 2. 25 2. 27 1. 9 2. (1. 21) (1. 3) (1. 4) (1. 39) (1. 32) (1. 26) (1. 33) (1. 39) (1. 3) (1. 29) (1. 35) (1. 26) (1. 35) (1. 22) (1. 25) (1. 14) (1. 49) (1. 18) (1. 28) (1. 11) (1. 3) (1. 29) (1. 21) (1. 34) (1. 0) (1. 26) (1. 24) (1. 21) (1. 02) Responding no opinion or non-response (%) 0. 9 1. 6 1. 6 0. 9 3. 8 13 7. 6 3. 5 8. 8 6. 3 6. 3 3. 5 6. 9 5 8. 2 26. 1 3. 8 19. 6 4. 4 18. 9 3. 5 4. 7 25. 2 2. 2 32. 5 3. 5 8. 5 1. 6 21 Table 4 Facilitator items in rank order Reporting item as moderate or great facilitator (%) 89. 6 89. 5 84. 8 82. 3 82. 0 81. 4 81. 3 78. 2 Number (%) responding no opinion or non-response 8 (2. 5) 6 9 6 10 (1. 8) (2. 8) (1. 8) (3. 2)Facilitator item Increasing the time available for reviewing and implementing research ? ndings Conducting more clinically focused and relevant research Providing colleague support network/mechanisms go education to increase your research knowledge base Enhancing managerial support and encouragement of research implementation up(p) availability and accessibility of research reports Improving the understandability of research reports Employing nurses with research skills to serve as role models Item mean score (SD) 4. 52 (0. 93) 4. 39 4. 21 4. 11 4. 15 (0. 94) (1. 02) (1. 13) (1. 08) 4. 12 (1. 11) 4. 16 (1. 1) 4. 04 (1. 22) 5 (1. 5) 8 (2. 5) 9 (2. 9)O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315 311 A. M. Hutchinson and L. Johnston in addition to bene? ts of use of ? ndings in practice. Factor 3 focuses on characteristics of the nurse. In particular, this factor is associated with the nurses beliefs about the value of research and their research skills, in addition to the limitations of their role. The fourth factor is concerned with characteristics of communication. The focus of this factor centres on access to research ? ndings and understanding of the implications of ? ndings. The issues encompassed within this factor re? ect organizational barriers to access, and research presentation barriers.These factors are congruent with the concepts characterized in Rogers (1995) model of diffusion of innovations, including characteristics of the adopter, organization, innovation and communication, on which the BARRIERS Scale was developed. Two barrier items, research reports/articles are not published fast enough and the research has not been replicated, failed to load suf? ciently onto a factor and were subsequently discarded. Exclusion of these items from the model re? ects th eir minimal signi? cance in relation to the underlying dimensions of the factors. That these items were ranked 23 and 16, respectively, is not surprising because they become less relevant when there is a perceived lack of time to read research and implement change as re? cted in the top two nominated barriers to research utilization. It is also important to note that over one quarter of respondents selected the no opinion option or failed to respond to both of these items, which further suggests their lack of importance to respondents. The majority of respondents in this study rated approximately 40% of the barriers items as moderate or great barriers. This is compared with the majority of nurse clinicians in the US (Funk et al. , 1991a) and nurses in the UK (Dunn et al. , 1997), who rated about 65% of the barrier items as moderate or great barriers. Overall, this group of Australian nurses perceived there to be fewer barriers to esearch utilization than their colleagues in the UK o r US, with a mean score of 43. 7% of respondents rating all the barriers as moderate or great. In the UK (Walsh, 1997a) and the US (Funk et al. , 1991a) mean scores of 59. 8 and 55. 7%, respectively, re? ect the proportion of respondents who rated all barriers as moderate or great. Possible in? uences such(prenominal) as time, population, nursing education programmes should be acknowledged when considering these comparisons. Content analysis of the data comprising additional perceived barriers elicited ? ve new themes respondents associated with barriers to research utilization. Revision of the instrument to re? ect the themes identi? d and changes that have occurred over the past 10 years may be warranted to achieve a more valid scale for the setting in which it was used in this study. The addition of items consistent with changes in the availability of technological resources, information availability and use, and education may enhance the content validity of the scale. The rankin g of perceived barriers in practice resulting from this study showed considerable consistency with rankings reported in other studies, as previously discussed. The top three barriers reported in 12 other studies fell within the top 10 barriers identi? ed in this study. Furthermore, two of the top three barriers in an additional two studies fell within the top 10 barriers identi? ed in the present study. The barrier item there is insuf? ient time on the job to implement new ideas was reported within the top three barriers in 13 studies, including this and another Australian study (Retsas, 2000). When Spearmans rank order correlation coef? cients were generated to compare the rank ordering of perceived barriers, a strong positive correlation between this and several other studies was evident (Table 5). Whilst acknowledging differences in nursing populations, sample size, sampling methods, response rates, and minor variations in item wording and number, this suggests a large degree of consistency regarding Study Funk et al. (1991a) Funk et al. (1995a) Dunn et al. (1997) Rutledge et al. (1998) Lewis et al. (1998) Kajermo et al. (1998) Retsas & Nolan (1999) Parahoo (2000) Retsas (2000) Closs et al. 2000) Parahoo & McCaughan (2001) Grif? ths et al. (2001) Location USA USA UK USA USA Sweden Australia Northern Ireland Australia UK Northern Ireland UK r 0. 866 0. 779 0. 835 0. 816 0. 879 0. 719 0. 884 0. 837 0. 801 0. 762 0. 799 0. 912 P 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 0. 000 Coef? cient of determination (%) 75 61 70 66 77 52 78 70 64 58 64 83 Table 5 Barrier rank order correlations 312 O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315 Clinical nursing issues Barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilization nurses perceptions of the relative importance of the barrier items. Marsh et al. 2001) however, caution against international comparisons with the original US data because changes in nursing e ducation and roles, technology, funding and collaboration with other disciplines since then, may invalidate such comparisons. Nonetheless, despite these changes, the ? ndings of the present study have consistencies with not only the US data of 1991 but also more recent studies in the US, UK, Sweden, Northern Ireland and Australia (Table 5). Thus, notwithstanding the increasing momentum of the evidence-based practice movement in recent years, the pursuit of professional status by the nursing profession, the move of nursing education to the tertiary sector, increased access to positive reviews and research databases, the research practice gap persists.In the light of the plethora of research and theoretical literature on the researchpractice gap and issues surrounding research utilization, it is of concern that nurses perceptions of the barriers to research utilization appear to remain consistent. In particular, issues surrounding support for implementation of research ? ndings, auth ority to change practice, time constraints and ability critically to appraise research continue to be perceived by nurses as the greatest barriers to research utilization. This raises important questions. Firstly, do such perceptions re? ect the reality of contemporary nursing? Or rather, do they represent un disputed, traditionally held and ? rmly entrenched beliefs, which are founded on an understanding of nursing in a socio-historic context that is no longer relevant? If such perceptions do, in fact, re? ct the reality of original day nursing practice, despite the changes and progress that have been made in health care and nursing over the last decade, it behoves us, as a profession, to address the issues related to time, authority, support and skills in critical appraisal with conviction and a sense of urgency. Contextual issues including the socio-political environment, organizational culture and interprofessional relations need to be taken into serious consideration when expl oring and formulating potential strategies to overcome these barriers. The hospital in which this study was conducted has since undertaken to explore and develop strategies to address and overcome barriers to, and reinforce and strengthen facilitators of research utilization highlighted in the ? ndings. ther studies using the BARRIERS Scale, may re? ect a response bias. That is, nurses with a positive attitude to research may have been more likely to complete the questionnaire. Internal consistency, the extent to which items in the scale measure the same concept (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 1998), of the tool was reasonable, although not as high as that reported by Funk et al. (1991b). For seven items, more than 10% of the respondents nominated no opinion or failed to respond. Furthermore, this study was conducted in one organization the ? ndings are therefore context speci? c, which makes it dif? cult to generalize to other settings. However, there is consistency over ime and between co untries in regard to nurses perceptions of the barriers to research utilization. Conclusion In order to gain an understanding of perceived in? uences on nurses utilization of research in a particular practice setting, nurses were surveyed to elicit their opinions regarding barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilization. Many of the perceived barriers to research utilization reported by this group of Australian nurses are consistent with reported perceptions of nurses in the US, UK and Northern Ireland during the past decade. Time was the most important barrier perceived by nurses in this study, which is re? ected by responses to the items, the nurse does not have time to read research and there is insuf? ient time on the job to implement new ideas, resulting in them being ranked as the top two barriers to research utilization. Consistent with this ? nding was the ranking of facilitator item increasing the time available for reviewing and implementing research ? ndings as the most important facilitator to research utilization. The study of qualitative research methods, such as observation and interview, will collapse further to our knowledge about barriers to, and facilitators of, research utilization by nurses by allowing deeper exploration of experiences, perception and issues faced by nurses in the utilization of research in their practice.Fundamental questions about whether nurses perceptions actually re? ect the reality of the current context of nursing need to be further investigated. Future research should also examine issues surrounding the use of time by nurses. Questions exploring how much additional time nurses require in order to read the relevant literature and how nurses can be given more time to implement new ideas, need to be addressed. Issues related to nurses perception of their authority to change patient care procedures, the support and cooperation afforded by doctors and others, the facilities and availability of resources, and th eir skills in critical appraisal, also require further 313 LimitationsReporting bias associated with the self-report method raises questions about the extent to which the responses accurately represent nurses perceptions of the barriers to research utilization. The low response rate achieved in this study, although consistent with response rates reported in several O 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Clinical Nursing, 13, 304315 A. M. Hutchinson and L. Johnston exploration. Investigation of the information-seeking behaviour of nurses, the means by which they gain and synthesize new research knowledge and the way in which they apply that knowledge to their decision making, will further contribute to our understanding of the researchpractice gap phenomenon.Measurement of the actual extent of research utilization by nurses in the practice setting presents a major challenge for researchers in this ? eld. Acknowledgements The authors thank Sandra Funk for her permission to use th e BARRIERS Scale for the purpose of this study. We wish to acknowledge and thank the nurses who completed the questionnaire. The authors also wish to acknowledge the statistical assistance provided by Ms Anne Solterbeck, Statistical Consulting Centre, Department of maths and Statistics, The University of Melbourne. Contributions Study design LJ, AMH data analysis AMH manuscript preparation AMH, LJ literature review AMH. 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